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CHINA'S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



CHINA'S 
PLACE IN PHILOLOGY 

AN ATTEMPT 

TO SHOW THAT THE LANGUAGES 

OF 

EUROPE AND ASIA 
HAVE A COMMON ORIGIN. 

BY 

JOSEPH EDKINS, B.A., 

of the London Missionary Society, Peking ; 

Honorary Member of the Asiatic Societies of London and Shanghai, and of 

the Ethnological Society of France. 




LONDON: 
TRUBNER & CO., 8 and 60, PATERNOSTER ROW. 

1871. 
All rights reserved. 



Tzo\ 
E.Z 



n 



" AND THE WHOLE EARTH WAS OF ONE LANGUAGE, AND OF 

one speech." — Genesis xi. 1. 



' l GOD HATH MADE OF ONE BLOOD ALL NATIONS OF MEN FOR 
TO DWELL ON ALL THE FACE OF THE EARTH, AND HATH DETER- 
MINED THE TIMES BEFORE APPOINTED, AND THE BOUNDS OF 
THEIR HABITATION." Acts XVli. 26. 

'AAA' 5 [xkv AlOiowas nereKiaOe rtiXod' iovras, 
AldioiraSy ro\ SixBa Sefiaiarai 4<xx aroi a.p5pSiv, 
Ol fi€V dvao/j.&ov Tireplovos, ol 8' aviSvros. 

Horn. Od. A. 22. 



TO THE DIRECTORS 

OP THE 

LONDON MISSIONAEY SOCIETY, 

IN RECOGNITION OF 
q THE AID THEY HAVE RENDERED TO RELIGION AND USEFUL LEARNING, 

BY 

THE RESEARCHES OF THEIR MISSIONARIES 

INTO THE 

LANGUAGES, PHILOSOPHY, CUSTOMS, AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, 

OF VARIOUS HEATHEN NATIONS, 

ESPECIALLY 

IN AFRICA, POLYNESIA, INDIA, AND CHINA, 

THIS WORK IS , 

RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, 



9 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Introduction xi 

Chapter I. — Introductory. — Comparison between the ancient Chinese 
civilization and that of the Babylonians and Egyptians. — Resem- 
blance in genius and early inventions implies consanguinity in 
race. — Chronology. — Climatic conditions. — Agriculture. — Altars. 
— Government. — Arts. — The kings were priests. — Tombs. — 
Causes of the permanence of Chinese institutions 1 

Chapter II. — Comparison with Western Asia continued. — Resem- 
blances in philosophy and religion. — Numerical philosophy. — 
The nine categories of the Hung Fan. — Measures. — Practical 
genius. — Astrology. — Cycles. — Early religion of the world. — 
Monotheism and burnt sacrifices in Genesis, Job, and the Shu 
King. — Sabeanism. — Angels. — Evil spirits. — Chinese burnt 
offerings to Shang Ti. — Worship of spirits and of visible nature. 
— These customs were brought from the west. — Worship of 
ancestors in temples 13 

Chapter III. — Geographical areas of languages. — Chinese anc^ 
Eastern Himalaic— Japanese— Corean — Mongol and Turkish — 
Manchu — Tibetan— Tamul — Indo-European — Semitic. — Effect 
of geographical contiguity 31 

Chapter IV. — On the primeval language. — It was monosyllabic. — 
Examples. — Pronouns. — Laws of position. — Laws of rhythmus. 
— Pronominal roots also verbs. — Closed syllables a proof of 
man's continental origin. — Early use of final m. — Names of 
animals. — Divine origin of language .51 



Vlll CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



Chapter V. — The Chinese probably Hamites. — Chronology of the 
Deluge. — Genealogies in Genesis. — Ancient Semite occupation 
of Persia.— Semitic impress on the Himalaic race. — The Chinese*' 
moved eastward before the Confusion of Tongues. — The Chinese 1 ' 
ancient syllabary recoverable from the phonetics. — Six final con^ 
sonants. — The surd initials derived from the sonants.— Tones. — 
SyntaxV 67 

Chapter VI. — The Semitic system older than the Turanian ; 
younger than the Chinese. — Triliteral roots. — Insertions. — 
Suffixes. — Prefixes. — Growth of inflexions. — Sex. — Personifica- 
tions. — Syntax. — The verb placed first.— Post-position of adjec- 
tive and of genitive. — Post-position of genitive borrowed by 
European languages. — Semitic relative and European relative 
compared with the Chinese and Turanian equivalent 92 

Chapter VII. — The Himalaic languages younger than the Chinese; 
older than the Turanian. — Eastern Himalaic branch. — Siamese 
phonal system. — Cochin-Chinese tones. — Chinese natur al tones. 
— Vocabulary. — Syntax. — "Western Himalaic branch. — Tibetan 
phonal system. — Tibetan and Hebrew common words. — Tibetan^ 
tones. — Post-position of case particles. — Derivatives. — Tibetan 
verb. — Antiquity of the Tibetan type Ill 

Chatter VIII. — First division of the Turanian system. — Japanese 
branch. — The triple-branched Turanian family : Japanese, Dra- 
vidian, and Tartar. — First, the Japanese. — Japanese syllabic 
alphabet. — Common roots in Japanese. — Formation of com- 
pounds. — Case particles 139 

Chapter IX. — Second division of the Turanian system. — The 
Dravidian languages. — Proof that this family is truly Turanian. 
— Common words. — Common laws of sound. — Surds and sonants. 
— Deficiency in sibilants. — Abundance of liquids. — Syllables 
usually open. — Derivation. — Comparative list of words. — The 
passive. — Negation. — Tense formation. — Dravidian syntax. . .168 

Chapter X. — Third division of the Turanian system. — Mongol as a 
type of Tartar languages. — An old Turania in Western Asia. — 
The Tartar Turanians come nearest to the Indo-Europeans. 
— System of sound. — S and j for sh and d. — Ch for s. — Final 
ng dropped. — No /. — The seven vowels. — Tone. — Accidence. — 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

Substantive verb and first personal pronoun. — Mongol declension. 
— Pronouns. — The Mongol verb. — Conjugation. — Adverbial 
suffixes. — Mongol syntax 204 

Chapter XI. — Malayo-Polynesian. — The Malay the type of a distinct 
family. — Alphabet and syllable. — Polynesian syllable based on 
the old Chinese syllable. — Effect of marine climate on the 
Malayo-Polynesian syllable. — Continental origin of the Poly- 
nesians. — Connexion of Siamese and Malay. — Post-position of 
the adjective and genitive. — Pronouns. — Case particles. — Semitic 
principles. — Chinese influence on Polynesia. — Pronouns. — Verbal 
directives. — Comparison. — Arithmetic. — American languages do 
not possess an exclusively Turanian or Polynesian type.— The 
more civilized were mainly Polynesian. — Semitic and Hindoo 

9 traditions in America. — Legends of the Deluge descended from 

Noah 247 

Chapter XII. — The Sanscrit language. — Sanscrit richness in forms. 
Its principles of development based on older systems. — Alphabet. 
— Syllable. — Prefix of s. — Insertion of r and I. — Polysyllabic 
word. — Declension. — Case suffixes. — Plural. — Gender. — Com- 
parison of adjectives. — Pronouns. — Derivative verbs. — Personal 
endings. — Tense marks. — Potential and conditional mood. — 
Infinitive. — Participle. — Auxiliary verbs. — Adverbial suffixes. — 
Prepositions. — Compounds. — Laws of position. — Zend Syntax. . 274 

Chapter XIII. — European languages. — Latest and grandest develop- 
ment of language. — The alphabet. — Common radical syllabary 
of Chinese and European languages. — European radical syllabary. 
— The European word. — Semite influence seen in conjugational 
vowel changes, in doubled consonants, in masculine and feminine 
terminations, and in dual and plural numbers. — Turanian in- 
fluence seen in moods and tenses, and in compounds. — European 
syntax. — Chinese element. — Semitic and Turanian elements. — 
Greek. — Tones in Chinese are accents in Greek. — Common words 
in Greek and Mongol. — Latin. — Resemblance^of Latin gerund 
and supine to those of Tartar languages. — List of roots common 
to Latin, Chinese, and Mongol. — Latin syntax more Turanian 
than the Greek. — Roman family relationships suggestive of con- 
nexion with eastern ideas. — Resemblance" between Roman and 
old Chinese religious beliefs. — Russian : The best new type of 

b 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

the Sclavonic family. — Full alphabet. — Abounds in prefixes 
to roots. — Examples of syntax. — Anglo-Saxon. — The syntax 
Turanian. — Anglo-Saxon and German have more of the Turanian 
element than is seen in the English. — English returns to Chinese 
and primeval syntax. — Cause of these variations. — Resemblance 
of Anglo-Saxon poetry to that of the Mongols. — Alliteration : 
exchanged for rhyme; cause of this change. — English. — List_of / 
corampja_words, Chinese and English 318 

Chapter XIV. — Conclusion. — Primeval Aryan civilization as known 
from language. — The common civilization of Aryans and Chinese 
may be known from language in the same way. — Activity of the 
third millennium b.c. — Ethnology of Genesis x. compared with 
the modern distribution of races. — Characteristics of families : 
the Chinese, order; the Semitic, life ; the Himalaic, quietness ; 
the Turanian, extension ; the Malayo-Polynesian, softness; the 
Indo-European, elevation; all of one blood. — Proof from Poly- 
nesian and American traditions. — Eesume. — Duty of Christians 
to Asia 385 



INTRODUCTION 



To show that the languages of Europe and Asia 
may be conveniently referred to one origin in the 
Mesopotamian and Armenian region, is the aim of the 
present work. Sanscrit philologists, entranced with 
admiration of the treasure they discovered south of the 
Himalayan chain, forgot to look north of that mighty 
barrier. Limiting their researches to the regions tra- 
versed by Alexander the Great, they allowed them- 
selves to assume that there was no accessible path by 
which the linguistic investigator could legitimately 
reach the vast area existing beyond their adopted 
boundary. 

The result of this abstinence on the part of Bopp 
and other scholars of high fame has been that the idea 
of comparing Chinese, Mongol, and Japanese with our 



Xll INTRODUCTION. 

own mother-tongue appears to some chimerical, hope- 
less, and uncalled for. 

Yet Scripture, speaking with an authoritative voice 
and from an immense antiquity, asserts the unity of 
the human race, traces the most general features of the 
primeval planting of nations, and declares that all men 
once spoke a common language. The most revered 
and most ancient of human books, in making these 
statements, sheds a bright and steady light on the 
obscurity of history, and at the same time reveals the 
imperfection of those views held by some modern 
thinkers and writers who deny that the languages of 
the world had one origin and that its races came 
of one stock. 

Alike for the vindication of Scripture and the pro- 
gress of knowledge, the comparison of the eastern 
Asiatic languages with the western is a task which 
must be undertaken, by whatever prescription it may 
seem to be forbidden. It is indeed not a little sur- 
prising that this inviting field of scientific research has 
been hitherto so little cultivated. 

Among the causes which have operated on the 
modern school of comparative philology to prevent 
the advance of inquiry in this direction is the neglect 
of syntax. By Sanscrit scholars it has been too much 
taken for granted that this subject is unimportant. 
At least, Bopp, in his great work on the Compara- 
tive Grammar of nine Indo-European languages, has 



INTRODUCTION. Xlll 

entirely passed it by. As there is no language in the 
world in which the order of words is not controlled by 
fixed laws, the omission of these laws from any book 
on grammar leaves it incomplete in a most vital part. 
Probably Bopp, seeing that Zend and Sanscrit, while 
they were sisters in all other respects, had in syntax 
the most singular disparity, allowed himself to con- 
clude that difference in the order of words in a sentence 
is a mere matter of rhetoric, emphasis, and agreeable 
effect. The tendency of Greek and Latin studies is to 
produce this feeling. 

One of the commonest effects of the juxtaposition 
of languages is the disjunction of syntax and roots. 
Every one who has visited China knows something 
about the grotesque dialect called Canton - English. 
It consists of English words arranged in a Chinese 
order. Sons of Cantonese traders procure a manuscript 
vocabulary of English words and contribute the syntax 
from their own language. A brief time of study 
qualifies them to become commercial agents, who can 
make themselves sufficiently well understood to gain 
profitable employment. In a Semitized country a like 
phenomenon would occur on a larger and more per- 
manent scale, if it were conquered by a people of a 
strange language. The new words introduced would 
be arranged in the order familiar to the old population. 
Persia, for example, would retain Semite syntax when 
it received an Aryan immigration ; and India would 



XIV INTRODUCTION. 

retain Turanian syntax after being conquered by the 
speakers of Sanscrit. It seems reasonable to account 
in this way for the resemblance existing between the 
Dravidian and Sanscrit syntax. 

Another cause of the extensive belief in the impas- 
sable nature of the chasm between Indo-European and 
Turanian languages, is the assumption that the in- 
flexional principle in the formation of compound words 
is something entirely distinct from the agglutinative. 
Yet in fact, as explained by Professor Max Miiller and 
others, they are but different stages of the same pro- 
cess. Inflexion was at first agglutination, and agglu- 
tination can in many instances not be distinguished 
from what is called inflexion. The distinction, how- 
ever, really exists, as is indicated by the circumstance 
that the writing of the Eastern Asiatic languages is 
always syllabic, while that of the Indo-European is 
alphabetic. Children are in the far east taught to read 
in syllables, rather than by letters. Where the in- 
flexional stage of language prevails, the finer analysis 
of alphabetic writing also exists. If a sufficient de- 
duction be made for the different aspect of languages 
as they are written syllabically and alphabetically, and 
if, further, the inflexional elements added to roots in 
Europe can be identified with those added by agglu- 
tination in Tartary, South India, and Japan, the sup- 
posed chasm will vanish from view. 

The remaining cause for the want of attention to the 



INTRODUCTION. XV 

claims of the Chinese and other eastern languages for 
recognition as genuine sisters, coming from the com- 
mon ancestry, like Hebrew, Sanscrit, and Greek, is 
unbelief in the identity of the roots. Klaproth and 
other authors, whose studies have led them to make 
wide comparisons of words in languages of widely 
separated families, had a conviction that the roots are 
originally one. This is eminently true of Gesenius. 
If Semitic scholars have a more thorough confidence in 
the original identity of the Hebrew and Indo-Euro- 
pean vocabularies than is shown by philologists of the 
Sanscrit school, it is probably because they have had 
the advantage of knowing both the vocabularies more 
thoroughly. The dissyllabic character of the Semitic 
roots has been a serious bar to progress in comparing 
them with those of families which are, like the Indo- 
European and Turanian, based on the monosyllable. 
But this should not be viewed as proof of different 
origin. It is only to be taken as evidence of contem- 
poraneous development. Branching from the same 
trunk, the Chinese, Semitic, Turanian, and Indo- 
European systems grew up together, each with its own 
laws, and in early times powerfully influenced by each 
other. If the Semites, as their first step in change, 
chose to prefix or append another consonant to their 
roots, and found that which satisfied their love of what 
is fitting in this widening of the radical base, we need 
not be deterred by this circumstance from the attempt 



XVI INTRODUCTION. 

to reduce the word thus altered to its original form. 
Take the word Shebet, sceptre, rod, to pieces by re- 
moving the sibilant excrescence. The remaining bet 
is our beat and bat, the Latin batuo, and the Chinese fa 
or bat, "to strike," "punish," or "chop down." So the 
verbs kamah, "to be consumed with desire," and kamar, 
" to burn with love," are identical with the Sanscrit 
kam, "to desire," the Persian kam, "love," the Chinese 
kam, "sweet," "to love." There is every reason to 
hope for the most solid and interesting results from 
a careful comparison of all the roots in the Eastern 
and Western families of languages, as has been done 
with those of the constituent members of the Indo- 
European group. 

Since the time of William von Humboldt, the re- 
ference of language to a plurality of origins has been 
in Germany not uncommon ; and Pott, Steinthal, and 
F. Muller hold this view still, against the opinions of 
P. Schlegel, Bunsen, and Max Muller. Should it be 
proved that the Chinese and Turanian families are 
certainly akin in syllabary, roots, and syntax to the 
Semitic and Indo-European languages, the area on 
which this battle can be fought will be very much 
diminished. To many minds the difference between 
Chinese and English will appear as great as that which 
could be found between any two languages whatever. 
To such minds what is proved in regard to Chinese 
will be admitted at once with regard to others. But 



INTRODUCTION. XV11 

should further processes of proof be demanded, it may 
be shown that the languages of the Pacific Ocean are 
firmly linked to those of the south-east of Asia in 
syntax, in roots, and in inflexional growth. Poly- 
nesian speech being thus shown to have branched off 
from the common trunk of Asiatic language, the de- 
fender of the doctrine of human unity in origin and 
in language may proceed to America. There is good 
reason to believe that the languages of that continent 
can be explained on the principles of the Polynesian 
and Turanian systems combined. If grammatical 
processes common in South- Sea speech are found in 
America, its partial colonization by way of the South 
Seas and Sandwich Islands must be conceded. The 
meeting of Turanian peculiarities, introduced from 
Greenland and Kamschatka, with those of south- 
eastern Asia, entering America by the tropics across 
the ocean, will be recognized as having made the lan- 
guages of that continent what they now are. In the 
same way in Africa a Malay element would enter from 
Madagascar and a Turanian element by the Straits of 
Gibraltar ; and the languages of colonies thus intro- 
duced may be expected to have exercised an impor- 
tant influence on the original Hamitic stock of that 
continent. 

When to the strictly philological proof are added 
such evidences as may be derived from history, tradi- 
tions, mythology, the arts, and special habits of group- 



XV111 INTRODUCTION. 

ing the objects of thought, the argument is powerfully 
increased. For example, in Polynesia, as in Eastern 
Asia, it is common to have two words for " brother," 
one for those older than the speaker, and another for 
those younger. The Mexican and Peruvian civiliza- 
tions bear a strong likeness to that of Southern Asia. 
There seem to be none of the religious usages of 
those races which cannot be furnished with a prototype 
from the older locality first inhabited by the human 
family. 

All these things taken together tend to confirm, with 
overwhelming certainty, the impression common to 
mankind in all countries, that all are of one original 
parentage. This was felt by Terence when he wrote 
the famous line : 

"Homo sum, humani nil a me alienum puto." 

Confucius believed that men are all of one ancestry 
when he said, "Si hai chi nui kiai hiung ti ye," All 
within the four seas are brethren, or more literally, are 
elder and younger brothers, for here we have an example 
of the principle referred to in the last paragraph. The 
Buddhists had a deep conviction of the same kind when 
they taught the vanity of caste distinctions, and the 
equality, before Buddha's law, of Sudra and Pariah 
with the most high-born Brahman. They also put in 
practice this article of their faith when they crossed 
seas and mountains to proselyte the Javanese islander, 



INTRODUCTION. XIX 

the Chinese, and the Tartar, to the cosmopolitan re- 
ligion of their founder. But having only Hindoo 
legends as a basis of faith, they could not teach a 
reasonable account of the origin of man or of language, 
and the monstrous fictions of their national mythology 
shut out from their view the perfect God and eternal 
Creator, 

It was reserved for Christianity to make known the 
true commencement of history and of language in the 
narrative of the creation of Adam. The triple unity 
of God, of the race of man, and of human speech, are 
taught in the sacred books of the Jews, and the first 
two of these are re-asserted with the strongest emphasis 
in the New Testament. Imbued with this faith, it is 
impossible for the Christian missionary not to feel an 
ineradicable conviction that the heathen tribes to whom 
he proclaims the Gospel are at one in origin with those 
civilized races that have been long blessed with the 
light of Christian truth. He sees among the islanders 
of Polynesia and Madagascar the descendants of the 
common Adam, who have, through want of instruction 
and long-continued isolation, lost the knowledge they 
once possessed, but retain in their traditions, mental 
structure, habits of thought, and peculiarities of speech, 
more or less clear traces of their original oneness with 
the more civilized nations. 

Such also has been the opinion of men in all ages. 
Even the claim of the black- skinned African to recog- 



XX INTRODUCTION. 

nition by the white man as " a man and a brother " is 
admitted instinctively by the common human con- 
science, as it is required definitively by the Christian 
law. It was reserved for modern science to propose 
for the first time the hitherto unknown hypothesis of a 
plurality of origins for the human species and for 
language. That this has been done without an at- 
tempt to compare the Chinese ancient language with 
the Indo-European is an indication of rashness on the 
part of the promoters of this novel hypothesis. It is 
hoped that in the following chapters there will be 
found a sufficient number of new and incontestable 
facts bearing on the subject to justify the re-opening 
of the whole question. 

After a careful sifting of recent discoveries by the 
geologists on the antiquity of man, it will be the duty 
of the Christian theologian to examine afresh the 
question of early Biblical chronology. All new light 
brought upon this subject from unexpected quarters 
must be cheerfully accepted, so that difficulties in the 
current scheme may be as far as possible removed, and 
the claims of the older portions of the Bible to our 
intelligent faith may be shown to be as satisfactory 
as those of the more recent. 

It only remains to mention the steps by which the 
hypothesis contained in this work respecting the con- 
nexion of languages assumed the form in which it 
now appears. 



INTRODUCTION. XXI 



Commencing the study of the Chinese language 
under the auspices of the^London Missionary Society, 
in 1847, and arriving at Shanghai the following year, 
I early sought to learn the laws of connexion between 
the dialects of that vast country. These, with the 
examination of the phonetic element in the Chinese 
characters, led me to see in 1854 that a rich mine of 
information regarding the ancient state of the Chinese 
syllabary and language lies concealed in the characters 
themselves, as written 4,000 years ago, and that the 
dialects furnish the key to it. The use of the Chinese 
mode of writing began to spread into Japan, Corea, 
and Cochin- China 2,000 years since, and the trans- 
criptions then and subsequently made of Chinese 
sounds contain valuable information on the contem- 
porary state of the Chinese language. These have 
been made available by various useful works, published 
by the deceased missionary, Dr. W. H. Medhurst, who 
spent forty years in the East, on Corean and Japanese ; 
by Dr. Hepburn, American missionary-physician, at 
Yokohama, on Japanese; and by Father Morrone, of the 
Roman Catholic missions, on Cochin- Chinese. From 
these works and a study of the Chinese transcriptions 
of Sanscrit words found in Buddhist works, made 1,500 
years since by the Hindoo missionaries of Buddhism 
in China, I derived new light on the history of the 
Chinese language. The examination of this subject has 
been greatly aided by the work of M. Stanislas Julien. 



XX11 INTRODUCTION. 

Sent to Peking in 1863, to join the missionary- 
pltysician, Mr. Lockhart, in commencing a mission 
there, I also studied Mongol ; it being the Society's 
intention to begin afresh the diffusion of Christian 
light among the tribes of Tartary, a benevolent enter- 
prise which for more than twenty years had been neces- 
sarily intermitted. This gave me the opportunity of 
tracing the connexion between Chinese and that lan- 
guage, and of examining how far it may be regarded 
as a missing link between Chinese and the polysyllabic 
speech of western nations. 

Feeling convinced, on consideration, that Tartar ag- 
glutination and European inflexion are essentially one, 
I came to the conclusion that the apparently accidental 
likeness in some Latin and Manchu words, signalized 
by Herr Von der Gabelentz in his Grammar of the 
latter language, are examples in some instances of real 
identity. Such, too, appeared to be the case with 
Klaproth's list in Asia Polyglotta of what he calls 
Antediluvian words. 

The present publication is an imperfect attempt to 
embody the views thus arrived at. 

Residing in Peking, I have been unable to consult 
Mr. Hunter's work on the languages of India and 
Tartary, and many other valuable books, old and new. 
Very useful in these inquiries would be examples of old 
Turanian words from the Turanian cuneiform inscrip- 
tions, but these I have no means of obtaining. 



INTRODUCTION. XX111 

I have been specially indebted to Dr. Karl von 
Scherzer for the use of some excellent works executed 
at the Imperial printing-press at Vienna, the names of 
which occur in the following pages. 



Peking, September 23rtf, 1870. / 



CHINA'S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 

Introductory. — Comparison between the Ancient Chinese Civil- 
ization AND THAT OF THE BABYLONIANS AND EGYPTIANS. — RESEM- 
BLANCE in Genius and Early Inventions implies Consanguinity 
in Race. — Chronology. — Climatic Conditions. — Agriculture. 
— Altars.— Government. — Arts. — The Kings were Priests. — 
Tombs. — Causes of the Permanence of Chinese Institutions. 

The resemblance existing between the old Chinese 
civilization and that of the Hamite race long ago 
developed on the banks of the Nile and Euphrates is 
very remarkable. The two races made a common 
progress in agriculture, astronomy, and the arts of 
weaving and building. They also achieved the in- 
vention of an available mode of writing. The Baby- 
lonians impressed their characters on bricks when in 
a soft state ; the Egyptians cut them on stone ; and the 
Chinese painted them on tablets of bamboo or other 
kinds of wood. The first books in China consisted of 
bundles of these tablets strung together. In the west, 
the first books were made either of the papyrus, or of 

l 



Z CHINA S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 

sheepskin sewed piece by piece into long rolls. So 
close a similarity in genius between the descendants of 
Cush and Mizraim, who founded the first arts of the 
west, and the Chinese, who on the east of the Indo- 
European area have always reigned supreme in intellect 
and manual ingenuity, argues a probable connexion of 
race. 

Living in a latitude of 30° to 40° north of the 
equator, 1 the early Chinese possessed a climate which 
during the predominance of the Hamite and the Shem- 
ite intellect proved most favourable to progress in 
science and the arts. They probably came into the 
noble country assigned them by Providence for an 
inheritance, with an adequate knowledge of the Baby- 
lonian agriculture and astronomy. Their most ancient 
writings record the names of stars, an approximate 
length of the year, and the use of the intercalary 
month. As the Pleiades and other stars were, ac- 
cording to the native account, observed by means of 
an armillary sphere 2,000 years before Christ at the 
times of the solstices and equinoxes, we can test the 
general accuracy of their chronology. Making use of 
the correction required by the law of the precession of 
the equinoxes, we learn, for example, that the Pleiades 
were 4,000 years ago 60° behind their present position. 
This is in agreement with the Chinese ancient account. 

1 The Egyptian Thebes was in 26°, Memphis in 30°. Babylon was in 
33°, and Nineveh in 36°. The old Chinese capital was in 35°. 



CHRONOLOGY, O 

We may therefore rely upon the history, so far as these 
old astronomical fragments are concerned, as generally 
trustworthy. 

It has been suggested that the Chinese brought these 
observations at the solstices and equinoxes with them 
from the west, 1 and preserved by tradition the old 
positions of the stars. That they brought with them 
the rudiments of the arts and sciences seems to be 
unquestionable. But the fact that they brought them 
is evidence that they were able to make the described 
observations of celestial phenomena, and we gain 
nothing by shortening the national chronology. 

If it had been at a date less than 2,000 years before 
the Christian era that the earliest Chinese came into 
their country, the difficulty of the historical problem 
would be increased. For how are we to explain the 
physical changes that have made the Chinese type of 
man what he now is if our chronological scheme is to be 
curtailed ? It would not be wise to shorten the time 
of the separation of the Chinese from the men of the 
west, to whom they once stood, as will be shown, in the 
brotherhood of a common ancestry. Alterations in 
the language are of such a nature as to demand that 
we should allow for the Chinese occupation of North- 
western China a period certainly not less than that 
which is now usually assigned for the Hindoo occupa- 
tion of India, or about 4,000 years. 

1 Legge's Chinese Classics. Chalmers' Origin of the Chinese. 



As it happened to the Babylonians, so was it with the 
Chinese ; their agricultural, settled life was affected by 
the geological changes proceeding in their time. The 
Yellow River 1 abandoned what appears to have been 
its old direction from the Ordos country eastward by 
Peking to the sea, and turned abruptly southward 
between Shansi and Shensi to the province of Honan. 
Here it flowed east, wound its way afterwards north- 
east, and reached the sea at Tientsin, near its former 
mouth. 

The great central plateau of Asia has always been 
rising since and for ages before the commencement of 
history. The communication of the Caspian with the 
Polar Sea has long been dried up, and has become the 
bountiful inheritance of a Sclavonic population. The 
north coast-line of Siberia is still going out to sea at a 
rapid rate, viz. : at one degree of latitude in a century. 2 
The Yellow Sea becomes each year more shallow, and 
the coast which was a few centuries ago at Tientsin is 
now forty miles away from it to the eastward. New 
alluvial islands spring up in the mouth of the Yang 
Tsz Kiang through the gradual elevation of the sea- 
bottom, and, covered with fertile alluvium from the 
river, become populous and wealthy farming districts. 
Teng cheu fu, in Shantung, used to be a port for native 

1 Pumpelly in Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, "Washington. 
3 Arago, " Natural History of Human Species.' Quoted in Princeton 
Review. 



SIMILARITY IN ARTS, ETC., OF CHINA AND BABYLON. 

vessels of large burden. Now they cannot anchor 
there. The old port is left high and dry, and the 
native shipping proceeds to Chefu, sixty miles eastward. 
In Babylonia the coast-line advances at the common 
mouth of the Euphrates and Tigris one mile in from 
thirty to seventy years. 1 These facts seem to point to 
the conclusion that the whole of Eastern Asia is con- 
stantly rising. In particular, the Yellow Eiver has 
been subject, through subterranean forces causing oscil- 
lation, 2 to perpetual changes in its course, and it has 
entered the sea sometimes to the south of the Shantung 
promontory and at other times to the north. The 
necessity of protecting the fields from inundation 
proved a powerful stimulus to the emperor Yu and his 
contemporaries (as afterwards to the Chinese of each 
dynasty), and taught them to erect embankments and 
cut canals, just as it happened to the ancient Baby- 
lonians, that they were obliged to make provision 
against the overflow of the Euphrates by an extensive 
system of artificial watercourses. 

The ancient Chinese also erected large square altars 
and high terraces of earth, stone, and brick. The 
sacred altars in Peking, on which imperial sacrifices 
are offered, are usually square earthen terraces about 
sixty yards in circuit, and from four to six feet high. 
There is a flight of wide marble steps in the centre of 
each side. The emperor, or his substitute, worships on 

1 P. Smith's "History of the World." 2 Pumpelly 



O CHINA S PLACE IN THILOLOGY. 

the altar, and on it are placed also the offerings, and the 
wooden tablet which represents the object worshipped. 
The terrace for the worship of heaven, ^C W. T'ien Pan, 
is round, is in three stages, and is ascended by twenty- 
seven steps. The paving-stones and carved balustrades 
of this altar are all of marble. When we keep in 
mind that the ancient Chinese have always been accus- 
tomed to erect lofty terraces for astronomical purposes, 
— such as the Observatory terrace now in Peking ; 
that most of their terrace altars were for the. worship 
of Heaven, or rather of God under that name, and of 
the powers of nature ; and that the Cushites, who in- 
vented Cuneiform writing, erected in maritime Baby- 
lonia, for the worship of their divinities, terrace towers 
in stages still remaining ; we cannot but imagine con- 
sanguinity between these races as probable. 1 

Let the inquirer take into account also the ancient 
government of the Chinese. They had feudal barons 
in five grades, Kung, heu, pe, tsz, nan, in subordination 
to a lord paramount. The oldest national traditions 
speak sometimes of the Hwang, and at other times of 
the Ti, as the lord paramount of the state, and recognize 
no period when such a personage was wanting. The 
Chinese, therefore, must be supposed to have entered 

1 The tower of Borsippa had seven stages, each dedicated to one of the 
seven heavenly powers, and distinguished hy an appropriate colour. At 
the top was the Moon, silver, area twenty square feet. Then came, 2, 
Mercury, hlue; 3, Venus, yellow; 4, Sun, golden; 5, Mars, red; 6, Jupi- 
ter, orange; and, 7, Saturn, black. Area at base, 272 square feet. 



SIMILARITY IN ANCIENT CUSTOMS. 7 

their present country with, the idea of an absolute and 
wise ruler, as essential to the notion of a state. They 
have also always regarded him as entitled to his posi- 
tion by the choice of Heaven, communicated through 
successful war, the consent of the people, and the 
personal display of imperial virtues. We also know, 
by the Biblical history of Nimrod, that imperialism 
was one of the ideas of the Cushites. They with the 
Chinese were the first imperialists of whom history 
speaks. 
P Many ancient customs point to a connexion once 
existing between Western Asia and China. The use of 
magic, of music, of war chariots, and of religious usages, 
are in many respects parallel. In Layard's "Nineveh," 
three horses are seen harnessed abreast, in a bas-relief, 
to a two-wheeled chariot without covering, and occupied 
by warriors with bows. It is a curious fact that in 
native engravings, such as the Chinese love to make 
in illustration of their classics, ancient two -wheeled 
chariots without covering should be drawn with four 
horses abreast, while the emperor sits in the carriage 
protected from the sun by an umbrella which is held 
over him by an officer. At present in North China 
horses are not harnessed abreast. The farther we go 
back, the nearer are the resemblances. 

Sorcerers are mentioned under the name Mo TjA in 
the Shu king, in the second reign of the Shang 
dynasty, which commenced B.C. 1765. They are there 



8 china's place in philology. 

spoken of in a disparaging manner, according to the 
invariable custom of the stern moralists who in China 
have been the makers of history. 1 The Chinese word 
Mo, " sorcerer/' " witch," points historically and in its 
etymology to " brandishing the arms," " rubbing," and 
"handling." The ancient magicians wrought charms 
with their hands in India, Persia, and China. The 
Latin manus, " hand," and Greek //,aa>, " to rub," 
" handle," are from the same root, and it appears in 
Chinese as Ma, " to handle," " touch," and Mo, " to 
brandish the arms." This therefore is the most 
probable explanation of the word Magi, the common 
appellation of the Persian magicians. 

In the same ancient Chinese records the arts of 
weaving and of working in metals are mentioned. 
The "Tribute of Yu" 2 says of Tsing cheu in Shantung, 
"Its articles of tribute were salt, fine grass-cloth, and 
the productions of the sea of various kinds, with silk, 
fine hemp, lead, pine-wood, and strange stones. The 
Lai barbarians are shepherds. They brought in their 
baskets silk from the mountain mulberry." They seem 
at that early period to have been acquainted with all 
the ordinary metals. The date of the "Tribute of 
Yu" is given by the Chinese b.c 2205. From South- 
eastern and Western China came, as tribute to the 
emperor of that time, gold, silver, copper, iron, tusks, 

1 Perhaps this tone of disparagement may be taken as an indication of 
later composition. It occurs in a long speech attributed to the sage Yi Yin. 

2 Legge's " Shoo king," Part I., p. 102, slightly altered. 



KINGS WERE PRIESTS. 9 

hides, feathers, cinnabar, timber, and various fabrics 
of flax, hemp, and hair. In the time of Joshua, B.C. 
1450, Babylonish garments were conveyed to Judaea 
(Josh. vii.). The Persian race in Persia Proper, and 
as colonists in Turkestan, have always manufactured 
elegant woollen carpets. The Chinese ordinary word 
to "weave" is ^ Chi, old sound Teh; Latin, texo, 
" weave." To " build " is gg Chu, old sound Tok. 
Its being placed under the bamboo-class symbol sug- 
gests that it was the custom to make bamboo hedges. 
They interlaced thin bamboo stems and used stouter 
ones as posts. The same word was applied to brick, 
earthen, and stone walls : for instance, the walls of 
cities. The Greeks called a carpenter re/crow. 

It is highly probable that the kings of Nineveh 
acted as priests. " As in Egypt, they may have been 
regarded as the representatives on earth of the deity, 
receiving their power directly from the gods, and being 
the organ of communication between them and their 
subjects." 1 In China there is no doubt on the point 
that the emperor has always borne a sacred character, 
and acted as a priest between God and the people, 
praying for them in times of distress, and acknow- 
ledging guilt on his own and their behalf. 

The tombs of the Chinese emperors are remarkable. 
They are vast conical mounds of earth from a quarter 
of a mile to a mile in circuit. A long arched passage 

1 Layard's " Nineveh." 



10 



through brick- work leads up to the mound door. Over 
the passage is the monument inscribed with the title of 
the emperor. The hall in front, where worship is per- 
formed, is magnificent in size and appearance. Before 
this is another smaller hall. The tomb entrance, halls, 
courts, gates, and boundary walls are all on a large 
and complete scale. The tombs of the Lydian kings 
were something of the same kind. a The remains of 
that of Alyattes still stand near Sardis. The sepul- 
chral chamber is surmounted by a lofty pile, and so far 
it is like the pyramids, but as the pile is a mound it is 
more like the tumuli or barrows of the western world. 
The basement consists of immense blocks of stone, 
above which is a heap of earth, surmounted by five 
pillars carved with inscriptions. The ground plan is a 
circle three-quarters of a mile round, a little larger 
than the great pyramid. The sepulchral chamber in 
the centre of the tumulus is eleven feet long, by 
eight feet broad, and seven feet high." See Raw- 
linson, quoted in P. Smith's History. Several of the 
ancient Chinese emperors, fabulous and historic, have 
funeral mounds assigned to them by tradition. That 
of Yu, the great engineering emperor, is near JNmgpo. 
That of Fu hi is near Kai feng fu. The tomb of Yau is 
in Shansi, and that of Shau hau in Shantung. The identi- 
fication of the tombs of these ancient princes cannot be 
relied upon without excavations. But the custom of bury- 
ing the emperors in vast sepulchral mounds of earth is 



PERMANENCE OF CHINESE CIVILIZATION. 11 

thus shown to be a custom as old as that of erecting large 
terrace altars for sacrifices, as already described. 

To suppose that the Chinese originated indepen- 
dently the arts and usages to which allusion has now 
been made, isjx) assign. iwj^J^ginui3n,gaJa„ t a_jmany" 
branched civilization which is one in its main features. 
At this stage of archseological inquiry in Europe it 
is preferable, when we accept the conclusion now 
generally arrived at, that it was the Cushites, the 
brothers of the Egyptians, who commenced and de- 
veloped the Babylonian civilization, to proceed to class 
the Chinese with them. The likeness found to exist in 
practical bent, in the arts of life, and in all the solid 
elements of the old-world regime is sufficient to justify 
this step. If the Chinese did not bring with them 
to their new country all the arts mentioned, at least 
they came away with the same sort of mind and the 
same instinctive impulses. With a perseverance and 
enthusiasm which insured success, they laboured tri- 
umphantly for science and for the arts. More fortunate 
than the inhabitants of Babylon and Thebes, they have 
never seen the wreck of their institutions or the ex- 
tinction of their national existence. In this they were 
favoured by their isolated position and the compact 
mass of their immense population. "No Indo-European 
races approached them. The aborigines they found in 
the country, and the races that occupied Tartary, Tibet, 
and the Birmese peninsula, have always been inferior to 



12 china's place in philology. 

themselves. "When vanquished and subdued by Tartar 
races, they taught their conquerors the Chinese civil- 
ization, and when they became enervated by it, easily 
drove them back to their native wilds. With a wise 
foresight, two centuries before the Christian era, they 
abandoned feudalism, and adopted the centralization 
system of government, which they have ever since 
retained. When merchants brought them paper, and 
probably ink, of Greek manufacture from the West in 
the Han dynasty, they at once began to make them 
for themselves. The cumbersome bamboo tablets and 
coarse paint which were formerly used, they exchanged 
for wolf's-hair pencils and Indian ink, the modern 
implements of writing. They gave up war chariots, as 
did our ancestors, and commenced the use of cannon in 
place of catapults and battering rams. They discovered 
the properties of the loadstone, and probably applied it 
to navigation in the Indian Ocean several centuries 
before the mariner's compass was thought of in Europe. 
It was by these and such like improvements on their 
old institutions that the Chinese have kept pace with 
the ages, and prevented the fabric of their ancestral 
civilization from crumbling to irremediable decay. 



CHAPTER II. 

Comparison with Western Asia continued. — Resemblances in 
Philosophy and Religion. — Numerical Philosophy. — The 
Nine Categories op the Hung Fan. — Measures. — Practical 
Genius. — Astrology. — Cycles. — Early Religion op the World. 
— Monotheism and Burnt Sacrifices in Genesis, Job, and the 
Shu King. — Sabeanism. — Angels, — Evil Spirits. — Chinese 
Burnt Offerings to Shang Ti. — Worship of Spirits and of 
Visible Nature. — These Customs were brought from the 
West. — Worship of Ancestors in Temples. 

The numerous and very remarkable resemblances 
found to exist between the ancient Chinese philosophy 
and religion and those of Western Asia constitute a 
powerful proof of early connexion. There are many 
and very detailed allusions in the Chinese " Shu king," 
the most important of the classics, to the philosophy 
and religion current among the people in the second 
millennium before the Christian era. 

The philosophy was in one aspect numerical. The 
five elements are alluded to as the five energies. Hing 
(old sound, Gang), " to walk," "to act," may be trans- 
lated " elemental activities." They are water, fire, 
metal, wood, and earth, or the five powers supposed to 
inhere in these substances. Then we meet with the 



14 



five relationships, namely, those of prince and subject, 
father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger 
brother, and the bond of friendship. The following 
extract, somewhat altered, from Legge's " Shoo king," 
p. 79, will illustrate the usage of the numbers four and 
five, etc , in common phrases : — 

" The emperor Shun said to Yu, You, my ministers, 
are my legs and arms, my eyes and ears. I wish to 
help and protect my people. You assist me. I wish 
to proclaim the powerful efficacy of my government 
through the" four quarters. You act for me. I wish 
to see the emblematic figures of the ancients : the sun, 
moon, and stars (illumination), the mountains (security), 
dragons (variety), and pheasants (beauty), painted on 
the upper garment, the tiger of the ancestral temple 
(filial piety), the aquatic grass (purity), fire (bright- 
ness), rice (the support of life), the hatchet (legal 
decision), and the symbol of discrimination, consisting 
of two representations of the character £, hi, placed 
back to back, thus, 5H embroidered on the lower 
garment. They should be figured with five colours, 
splendidly distributed among the five colours for the 
imperial robes. It is for you to adjust them plainly. 
I wish to hear the six pipes, the five sounds, the eight 
kinds of musical instruments, and the seven begin- 
nings, in order that poems, made according to the scale 
of five sounds, may go forth from the Court and be 
brought in from the people. Hear this." 



THE HUNG FAN. 15 

In the Hung Fan 1 is found the most comprehensive 
statement on the old numerical philosophy to be met 
with in any ancient book. It is said to have been 
received by Wu wang, b.c. 1100, from Ki tsze, who 
informed him that Heaven gave it to Ta yu, b.c 2200, 
as a reward for his success in subduing the inundations 
of the rivers, and that the orderly arrangement of the 
moralities and social relations might thereby be com- 
pleted. 

THE NINE CATEGORIES OF THE HUNG FAN. 





I. Five Elemental Energies. 




water 


moistens and goes down 


salt 


fire 


blazes and ascends 




bitter 


wood 


crooked and straight 




sour 


metal 


obeys and changes 




acrid 


earth 


sowing and reaping 




sweet 




II. Five Human Actions. 




expression 


respectful 


venerable 


qualities 


speaking 


persuasive 


order 




seeing 


clear 


prudence 




hearing 


intelligent 


deliberation 


thinking 


profound 


wisdom 





III. Eight Departments of Government. 

food commodities sacrifices works instruction 

crime ■ guests the army 

IV. Five Registers of Time. 
years months days stars calendar 

V. The emperor's perfection in virtue, or himself attaining the summit 
of virtue 

1 Legge's "Shoo king," p. 320. 



16 china's place in philology. 

VI. The Three Virtues. 
uprightness times of peace 

prevailing by firmness times of violence and resistance j or _, e £ es . erve 

prevailing by mildness times of harmony and compliance j °l- n Ji! ?Jf n 



intelligent 
VII. Investigation of Doubts by the Tortoise and Diviner' 's grass. 

Tortoise {Chan), Tam. i^'Z^L^ ^ ^^ ^^ 

v " ( connexion, crossing. 

Diviner's grass (Pw), Pole. Two marks : solidity, repentance. 

VIII. Five Natural Indications. 
rain sunshine warmth cold times 

IX. Five Kinds of Happiness and Six of Misery. 
long life riches health and peace love of virtue submissively 

accomplishing to the end the will of heaven 
accidental death sickness grief poverty wickedness weakness. 

The Pa kwa, or system of whole and broken strokes 
in groups of three, arranged octangularly, was a set of 
symbols intended to represent a very ancient philoso- 
phy, consisting partly of physics, partly of morality, 
and partly of divination. It is the basis of the " Book 
of Changes," the time-honoured text-book of the 
masculine and feminine or dual philosophy. There 
are two other schemes of strokes - and lines, called the 
"Ho t'u" and the "Lo shu," maps fabled to have come, 
the one out of the Yellow River, and the other, the Lo, 
one of its Honan tributaries. But none of these can 
be compared in value with the Nine Categories of the 
Hung Fan, if it be desired to see at one view the 
forms of ancient Chinese thought. 

In the sphere of physics, the sages of this nation saw 






THE HUNG FAN. 17 

five poivers moving through heaven an<J earth without 
ever resting, giving variety to the forms of matter, im- 
parting a natural constitution to all things, and causing 
the multifarious distinctions of colour, taste, and sound. 
In the field of human action they remarked the five- 
fold qualities of the sage corresponding numerically to 
the activities of the senses and the thinking power. 

In the government of the empire they had the idea 

from the first of an imperial head, under whom there 

, was a division of departments, embracing agriculture, 

trade, religious ceremonies, works, education, judicial 

decisions, court ceremonial, and war. 

Their next field of investigation was astronomy and as- 
trology, which were always regarded as important enough 
to constitute a distinct branch of study for the sage. 

Occupying the centre of this logical scheme, and the 
summit of the social pyramid, appeared to these ancient 
thinkers the ideal emperor, the priest, the ruler, and 
the example in his own person of all the virtues. It 
was the duty of the conscientious statesman to keep 
constantly before the view of the reigning prince, es- 
pecially in his youth, the rounded and stainless image 
of moral perfection, that he might never forget the 
obligation to reflect it from himself. 

The sixth division in the scale of thought was occu- 
pied by the discussion and inculcation of the qualities 
necessary to a ruler, consisting, when stated most 
briefly, of strict integrity, firmness, and mildness. 



18 



The seventh was divination for the foretelling of 
future events. For this purpose, so essential, as was 
thought, in agriculture, war, and politics, the aged 
forms of the same wise men, who during the long ages 
of the past gradually shaped out the Chinese civiliza- 
tion, must be imagined bending over the boiled or 
scorched shell of the tortoise and the forty-nine stalks 
of the diviner's grass. They desired to know what 
they indicated in regard to rain, wind, success in battle, 
and the suitableness of political measures. 

The eighth department was that of the examination 
of natural phenomena to know if the emperor was 
acting wisely and well. Heat and cold coming in due 
proportion and at proper times indicate that Heaven 
is pleased with him and with the people. Particular 
stars foretell wind and rain, and also indicate the 
existence of certain virtues and vices among princes 
and their people. This was the people's divination, as 
that of the tortoise and the forty-nine stalks of grass 
was the emperor's. 

Lastly, the sages studied human life in its varying 
fortunes and the inequalities existing in regard to length 
of life, riches, health of body, virtuous dispositions of 
mind, and moral strength and feebleness ; in other 
words, the doctrine of retribution, visiting men always 
on moral grounds and by the direct agency of the 
Supreme Ruler. 

In this sketch of the ancient philosophy of the 



NUMERICAL PHILOSOPHY. 19 

Chinese, coming from a time five centuries earlier than 
Confucius, we see the predominance of the numerical 
idea. Fixed categories of thought were constructed by 
them and by the Babylonians from a cursory observa- 
tion of mental and natural analogies. The number of 
the fingers on the human hand and of the months of 
the year furnished them with sufficient ground for 
making five, ten, and twelve the bases of their cycles. 
The cardinal points, discovered by mankind in the 
infancy of language, as shown by the grammatical 
terms for direction existing in the speech of all races, 
combined with the succession of the four seasons, gave 
rise to the categories of four and eight. The category 
of three came from the observation of heaven, earth, 
and man, or of heaven, earth, and water, as the three 
provinces of being. The old category of two was 
originated by the observation of light and darkness 
eternally succeeding each other as day and night. 
There is a striking contrast here observable between the 
ancient dual philosophy of China and Persia resting 
on physical and moral distinctions, as light and dark- 
ness, or good and evil, and that of modern western 
philosophy, which turns its eye inward, and sees only 
in the world of existence the antithesis of the ego and 
the non ego. 

This numerical philosophy was naturally accom- 
panied by measures and measuring instruments both in 
China and among the Babylonians. Both races had 



20 



measures of length and capacity, which they after- 
wards communicated to surrounding nations. Our own 
weights and measures and divisions of time came origi- 
nal^, it is agreed, from Babylon. The genius of the 
Bab} T lonians and Chinese was so similar that, in both 
cases studying nature synthetically, they were contented 
with those useful and simple applications to common 
life and the service of the state which were in accor- 
dance with the practical bent of their minds. The 
more striking and profound discoveries of the analytical 
faculty they left to the Indo-Europeans, among whom 
thought was destined to soar with a bolder flight, and 
wing its way to loftier regions. 

In the astronomy of Babylon and of China there 
was a common tendency to astrology. As to the 
numerical philosopher heaven and earth constituted 
one world, controlled by like laws, and those laws for 
ever unalterable, human events, he believed, can be 
foretold by reading aright celestial phenomena. For 
what reason do the stars grow bright and pale, and 
shine with a different coloured light ? They are surely 
indications of the dispositions of the heavenly powers 
towards mankind. The same feeling which at a scien- 
tific epoch inclines an ardent mind, when gazing on 
the always mysterious, always wonderful, scenery of the 
starry sky, to wish to know the laws of motion, light, 
and mutual influence which there dominate, inspired 
in the childhood of science a mind of like aspirations 



ASTROLOGY. 21 

with a longing to become an astrologer. But there 
was this difference. The aspirant after astronomical 
knowledge wishes to arrive at correct views of the 
laws of the physical universe, and to add to the ever- 
accumulating stores of science. The astrologer, on the 
other hand, aimed to acquire the key of destiny, and to 
wield it as a power over his fellow-men. 

It appears to me more consonant with the facts of 
the case to trace the Chinese philosophy ultimately to 
Babylonia than to any other source, because, from its 
predominantly numerical and cyclical characteristics, it 
seems to have been founded very much on astronomy. 
The land which originated the numerical science of the 
Greeks, and of the Hindoos probably at a still earlier 
time, gave the Chinese the germs of their astronomy 
and philosophy, 

The many striking similarities existing between the 
Babylonian and Chinese civilization warrant the ex- 
pectation that the faith and usages of the religion of 
Enoch, Noah, and Abraham may be found among the 
ancient Chinese. Belus and Merodach were names 
unknown when the ancient connexion here contended 
for existed. It was the time described in the book of 
Job and the early parts of the book of Genesis, when 
the monotheistic faith prevailed in Western Asia, con- 
temporaneously with the brick-building, metallurgy, 
music, cloth-weaving, writing, and other primitive 
arts, for which the people of that region were famed. 



22 china's place in philology. 

Babylonia and Mesopotamia were the theatre of the 
earliest revelation, and it was there that the historic 
muse first commenced the record of the events of time. 
From thence, also, China derived her earliest ideas. 
The inspired men of that early period led the march of 
the ages, and were the instructors who communicated 
the knowledge of the Supreme God, with worship by 
prayer and burnt sacrifices, to the ancestors of the 
Indo- Europeans, 1 the Chinese, and all races that have 
preserved the monotheistic tradition. 

I will here place in succession the argument from 
the book of Genesis, the book of Job, and the Chinese 
Shu king. Faith in one God and worship by 
animal sacrifices (Gen. iv. 4, and viii. 20), with the 
general duties of morality and religion, taught by the 
father of the family, who acted as priest and instructor, 
constituted, according to the book of Genesis, the faith 
of mankind, first in the region of the Mesopotamian 
rivers, and afterwards, when the history becomes 
limited in its scope, in Canaan. The separation of the 
early nations is described, but nothing is said of their 
mythologies, which we are left to infer all sprang up 
subsequently. In India, for example, the Brahmanical 
religion began with monotheism ; then it merged into a 

1 The Greeks in Homer's day used language which shows plainly that 
they had still the monotheistic tradition. &ebs rb fxkv 8<txrei rb 5'eacret . . . 
" For God will grant and permit whatever has pleased him, for he can do 
all things." — OcL xiv., 444, 445. See Max Miiller's " Lectures on Lan- 
guage," second series. 



GENESIS AND JOB. 23 

mythology consisting of a mixed hero-worship and 
polytheism ; then in the fifth century before Christ 
it passed into the Buddhistic atheism, substituting an 
image-worship of ideas for that of mythological per- 
sonages ; and subsequently went back to polytheism. 
In Genesis, the first man tilled the ground, and he and 
his wife were clothed in skins by divine direction. 
The discovery of the metals soon followed, and the ear 
of primitive men was pleased with the concord of 
musical sounds. They dwelt either in tents or in cities, 
and it is curious that cities should be mentioned first, 
as agriculture is mentioned before the keeping of sheep. 
The first animal sacrifice, that offered by Abel, we are 
left to suppose was burnt by fire from heaven, for we 
are not told in what way God signified his acceptance 
of it. Of Noah it is expressly stated that he offered 
burnt offerings on an altar, and this is the first mention 
of an altar. 

One of the most impressive facts in the book of Job 
is that while he knew the names of stars, was able to 
describe the process of mining for silver, had an exten- 
sive acquaintance with natural history, and was himself 
an agriculturist and owner of extensive flocks and 
herds, he knew nothing of any pagan mythology. He 
was acquainted with the turning of the clay to the seal, 
and the graving of the pen upon the rock, with the 
productions of Egypt, with the government of kings 
upon their thrones, the pawing of the war-horse, the 



24 china's place in philology. 

thunder of the captains, and the shouting of battle ; but 
he had heard of no God beside Elohim and Shaddai, 
and to him he offered burnt offerings, as Noah had 
done before. 

Though there is an allusion (chap. xxxi. 26) to the 
Sabean and old Persian worship of the sun and moon, 
which is condemned as contrary to the monotheistic 
doctrine, there is no reference to Babylonian or Syrian 
mythology ; but there is distinct evidence of belief in 
the existence of good and evil angels. The enemy of 
mankind, appearing in Genesis in the form of a ser- 
pent, here comes upon the scene as a fallen angel. 

The ancient Chinese emperors, as the Shu king 
teaches us, offered from time immemorial burnt sacri- 
fices to Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, and the custom 
has been retained till the present time of burning an 
entire bullock, which must be without blemish, and, 
with the other bullocks which are offered unroasted, is 
previously kept in the park of the altar of Heaven. 
The entire bullock is at the present time roasted to 
ashes in a large furnace built of green glazed bricks, 
and set fire to from beneath. It stands on the south- 
east side of the great altar, on which are placed the 
tablet of Shang Ti and the offerings which are not con- 
sumed by fire. The emperor kneels and offers his 
prayer on the large altar, on the centre stone, having 
the unburnt victims and the tablets before him on the 
north. The furnace of the burnt offering is nine feet 



OLD CHINESE WORSHIP. 25 

high and seven feet wide, and is ascended by nine 
steps on the south, east, and west sides. The fire is 
kindled from below on the north side. In several 
points it differs from the altars of burnt offering in the 
Old Testament, which were made of earth or of un- 
hewn stones, and at a later period covered with brass. 
The burning took place among the Jews and other 
Western nations on the platform of the altar, and such 
was the ancient custom of the Chinese. The great 
altar proper, on which the emperor worships, occupies 
the place of the Jewish Holy of Holies, which con- 
tained the ark, and where the high priest offered 
prayer. Pursuing this comparison, the Chinese furnace 
of burnt offering is behind the imperial pontifex as he 
worships, and in front of the tablet, which is the 
visible symbol of the divine presence, and before which 
the emperor kneels. The more ancient custom was to 
have for the burnt sacrifices (as we learn from the 
Li ki, or Book of Rites, the fourth of the five 
classics) a second altar, T'ai fan, to the south of " the 
round hillock." When the emperor knelt on the round 
hillock this altar of burnt sacrifice was behind him. 
The furnace is a modern invention, and its position to 
the south-east is a novelty. With regard to the object 
of the burnt sacrifice, the Chinese state it to be to 
attract the attention of the Spirit of Heaven. 

This they also represent as the intention of the 
music which has, in ancient and modern times, always 



26 



accompanied the sacrifices. Special odes are composed 
for these occasions, adapted to certain melodies, which 
constitute a sort of sacred music. They are intro- 
duced at fixed times during the progress of the cere- 
mony, and much in the same way as at the setting 
up of the golden image by Nebuchadnezzar in the 
plain of Dura. 

The want of acknowledgment of sin and of sub- 
stitutionary punishment in the Chinese burnt sacrifices 
distinguish them from those of Grenesis, the book of 
Job, and the Old Testament generally. They are now 
different, but they were one originally. Forgetting 
certain essential ideas, the Chinese have retained 
some features of undoubted antiquity which link them 
with the beginnings of human history in South- 
western Asia, and with the age of the first divine 
revelations. 

To the original monotheism taught by the first 
inspired men succeeded, when they ceased to guide 
human thought, the nature-worship of the Turanians 
and Persians, the polytheism of the Hindoos and 
Babylonians, the animal-worship of the Egyptians, the 
Sabeanism of the Arabians. But the primitive age of 
monotheistic belief is not so far removed, nor has the 
gnawing tooth of time been so destructive among old- 
world traditions, as to allow the memory of that early 
faith to be entirely obliterated in any of the ancient 
literatures still extant. 



WORSHIP OF NATURE. 27 

It was to Jt *^ Shang Ti alone that the burnt sacrifice - 
was offered. This is a name which carries on the 
surface its own meaning — the Supreme Euler. Since 
the Chinese came from South-western Asia (where 
monotheism originally prevailed), as is shown by a 
multiplicity of common customs, arts, and beliefs, and 
that at a time anterior to the change from the worship 
of one God to polytheism, how can we doubt that the 
Being they worshipped with burnt sacrifices under this 
lofty title is the Elohim and El Shaddai of the Old 
Testament ? 

The old Chinese records say that the emperor also 
worshipped the six honoured ones, thought by native 
eritics to be the seasons, cold and heat, the sun, the 
moon, the stars and drought ; after them the rulers of 
the mountains and rivers, and finally the multitude of 
spirits. The honoured ones are called ^ Tsung, " the 
lofty ones." They are to be viewed as the intrusion of 
nature-worship into the old monotheistic religion. 
Evidently they mean those nature divinities that are 
above the earth, for the mountains and rivers and the 
spirits that occupy the lower regions of the air are 
referred to separately. The spirits Shen, anciently 
pronounced Zhin, may be the Jinn of the Arabs and 

1 Legge's "Shoo," p. 34. The name Luy ||i old form Zut, was probably- 
chosen on account of the roundness of the altar. Other altars were square. 
Lut has, for one of its most prominent meanings, "roundness," as in lut, 
"reed," "pipe," etc.; and Lu, old sound Lut, "around stove," 
" a skull " " a round hut." 



28 



Persians, which were fairies or demons. Perhaps they 
were originally the same as the Beni Elohim, " sons 
of God," of the book of Job, the ordinary name for 
angels in that inspired poem. 

The deep impress of religious faith on the national 
mind continues to be apparent throughout the history 
of the Shu king, terminating B.C. 650. It was during 
this time also that the Shi king, the invaluable col- 
lection of old national poetry, was written ; and here the 
same reverence for the Supreme Ruler, faith in his pro- 
vidential government of the world, and confidence in 
those traditions which represented him as speaking to 
Wen wang, the favourite sage and royal founder of the 
Cheu dynasty, are abundantly manifest. Monotheistic 
faith only became weakened on the arrival of an age of 
speculation, in the latter part of the Cheu dynasty. 

The emperors were accustomed in their tours of in- 
spection through the empire to offer burnt sacrifices to 
Shang Ti, on the summit of mountains in the north, 
south, east, and west provinces. Among the sins of 
Sheu which caused his death and the overthrow of his 
dynasty is mentioned his neglecting the annual sacrifice 
at the Altar of Heaven. The accession of emperors to 
the throne, and the occurrence of remarkable victories, 
together with times of drought and other public mis- 
fortunes, were always deemed suitable occasions for 
these sacrifices. 

The books of Genesis and Job, with the Shu king, 



ANCIENT MONOTHEISM. 29 

all depict an age when open altars were used for worship, 
when one God was adored, when there was no priestly 
class, when the chief of the family and of the state 
was its priest, and when the happiness and misery of 
man were universally believed to be providentially as- 
signed by God in the way of rewards and punishments. 
The Sabean worship of the heavenly bodies grew up 
with open altars, and was the cause of Abraham's re- 
moval to Canaan. The Chinese brought with them this 
pearliest deviation from a monotheistic creed, and the 
habit of worshipping and attempting to propitiate those 
angels, whether well or ill disposed (the Shen and the 
Kwei), in whose existence they had learned to believe 
before coming from the west. To this they added the 
worship of ancestors in temples by means of tablets. 
This third deviation from the primitive faith of the 
world corresponds to the honours paid to heroes, and the 
polytheistic worship of images with human names in 
Babylon, Syria, Egypt, and India, which were also 
performed in all cases in temples. The temple is 
imitated from the house, and was intended originally 
for the posthumous worship of heroic men and the 
ancestors of kings. When the Chinese left the west, 
nearly three thousand years before the Christian era, the 
germs had scarcely begun to appear of those mighty 
polytheistic religions which followed monotheism and 
Sabeanism, and preceded or precede Christianity among 
the nations of South-western Asia, India, and Europe. 



30 china's place in philology. 

That the early Chinese should, in addition to their 
monotheism, have become infected with the Sabeanism 
which Job condemned, and with some other heathen 
usages found to prevail long after in the countries from 
which they came and through which they passed, need 
not be wondered at when we recollect that vestiges of 
the old monotheism co-existed with the Roman, Greek, 
Egyptian, and German idolatries. Cicero said, " Dei 
nutu omnia provisa sunt/' "all things are provided 
beforehand by the will of God." He also says elsewhere, 
"Haec omnia deorum nutu atque potestate administrari," 
" that all these things are administered by the will and 
power of the gods." He speaks in the one case under 
the influence of the monotheistic faith, which lay 
beneath the prevalent polytheism, and in the other 
case under that of the popular faith in the greater and 
lesser gods. Wilkinson, vol. i., in his chapter on the 
Religion of the Egyptians, ascribes to the priests an 
esoteric faith in the Unity of the Deity. 

Before the introduction of images and temples there 
was one religion spread among all the Asiatic races. It 
was the nature-worship which grew up upon the pri- 
meval monotheism, and it assumed different phases, as 
the professors of it were Persians, Hindoos, Sabeans, 
Turanians or Chinese. 



CHAPTEE III. 

Geographical Areas or Languages— Chinese and Eastern Him-* 
alaic — Japanese — Corean — Mongol and Turkish — Manchu 
— Tibetan — Tamul — Indo-European — Semitic. — Effect of 
Geographical Contiguity. 

9 The Chinese probably entered their country, nearly 
3000 years B.C., by the usual highway from Moham- 
medan Tartary, into Kansu and Shensi, 1 founding 
colonies along the banks of the western tributaries of 
the Yellow River, where we find the ancestors of the 
Cheu family. The road by Kia yu kwan and Lan cheu 
to Si an Fu would bring the first settlers to the south 
bend of the Yellow River, at the pass called T'ung 
kwan, so well known in history. Following the river 
east and north, they would arrive in Honan, where 
Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty, had his origin, 
and in Chili, the north part of which province gave 
birth to Yau, the first emperor mentioned in the Shu 
king. Other colonists, crossing the river into Shansi at 

1 Dr. Legge, who, by his translations, has opened to view in the English 
language the treasures of the Chinese ancient literature with unexampled 
fullness, is inaccurate when he brings the early settlers by the Yellow 
River into Shansi, vol. iii. Prolegomena, p. 189. That route would have 
lengthened very unnecessarily the journey across the desert. The cities 
of Kansu mark the most practicable route. 



32 china's place in philology. 

T'ung kwan, settled in the rich valleys of that province, 
where the emperor Shun was afterwards born. Every- 
where they found aboriginal inhabitants, whom they 
pushed before them, the ancestors of the present Miau 
tribes. By the time of Christ they had reached the 
south-east coast, for that part of China is then spoken 
of as well colonized. They also pushed their conquests 
into Cochin China, which was made a Chinese province. 

The languages of the Chinese, the Miau tribes, and 
of Cochin China are monosyllabic, and marked by the 
presence of tones. The same characteristics belong to 
the speech of Tibet, Birmah, Siam, and Cambodia, with 
all the hill tribes embraced within their boundaries. 
These languages together constitute the great mono- 
syllabic family of south-eastern Asia. 

Of this numerous family the type is the Chinese, 
which deserves this distinction, not only on account of 
the unparalleled population that makes use of it, but for 
its antiquity, its high literary development, and its 
independence of foreign accessions. It appears from 
the vocabularies possessed by the Chinese of the Miau 
dialects that their tribes inhabiting the hill districts 
in Kweicheu, Kwangsi, Canton and Yunnan are best 
regarded as a northern extension of the Siamese and 
Birmese population. They use partially both the 
Siamese and Birmese writing. 1 The customs of Siam, 

1 See the vocabularies of the Ming Imperial College for Languages, of 
which Klaproth has made ample use in his "Asia Polyglotta." 



THE MIAU TRIBES. 



33 



its calendar, its costume, are found among them. 
A few are Buddhists, but most tribes are believers in 
demons, enchantments, and ancestral worship, and as 
such must be assigned to the dominion of that old 
Turanian religion and system of institutions which 
Logan, speaking of the Tibeto-Burmans, has thus 
characterized : " The Tibeto-Burmans, where least 
modified by India and China, preserve all the traits of 
the ancient race and civilization of Upper and Eastern 
Asia. They are Turanian or Mongolic in person only ; 
v their usages are of archaic Mid- Asian origin, like those 
of the Tartars and Chinese. Long before the rise of the 
Egyptian, Semitic, and Iranian civilizations, one well- 
marked civilization, characterized by a common morality 
and by peculiar usages, religious, social, and domestic, 
prevailed almost universally." " In this old system," 
he continues, "women were slaves, clanship existed, 
with sorcery, divination, and ordeals. The old, weak, 
and useless lives were sacrificed when they became 
burdensome. They believed in one Supreme Gfod, and 
an immaterial imperishable spirit in man ; the spirits 
of ancestors and relatives were feared and worshipped. 
To gratify the dead and avert their malice, part of 
their possessions were burnt or buried with them." 1 

By vocabularies contained in the Hing i fu chi and 
Kwang si t'ung chi, 2 it appears that the Chung Miau 

1 J. R. Logan's " Journal of the Indian Archipelago," 1858. 

2 « m'M $> m w a $ 



34 china's place in philology. 

are allied to the Siamese. They reside in the south- 
west of Kwei cheu province. The Lo lo, a very old 
and extended tribe, in the north-west of the same 
province, are connected with the Burmese. The first 
personal pronoun in these dialects varies between ye, 
ku, and nau ; while the second is very frequently meu 
and meng, so that they are cut off from any Indo- 
European or Tartar connexion. 

Logan has conferred a great service on philology 
by his division of the Himalaic languages into two 
branches, eastern and western. He states that the 
eastern or Mon Anam branch has some radical pecu- 
liarities in structure, and has been deeply influenced, 
first, by the Dravidian family, and, secondly, by the 
Chinese. The area of this branch is Cochin China, 
Pegu, Siam, and Cambodia. Farther south, at the 
peninsula of Malacca, it meets the Malay, which con- 
stitutes the type of the Australasian and Polynesian 
languages. The western Himalaic branch retains the 
same characters in Tibet, India, and Ultra- India, and 
is more Scythic than the eastern. 

Most of the migrations of races have been in the 
direction of radii from the common centre where the 
first human pair was created, and where the first gene- 
rations of their posterity lived. Along one radius 
came the Dravidian races, and after them the Hindoos, 
by way of the Punjaub into India. The Eastern and 
Western Himalaic peoples, after traversing Tibet, 



CHINESE AREA. 35 

Dassed along the valley of the Brahmaputra into 
Ultra-India ; settling not only in that peninsula, but 
Drobably also in Southern China, where the Miau, 
Lo lo, Nung, Yau, and other tribes are their descen- 
lants. The Chinese, taking a more northerly route, 
lame along the lands watered by the Turkestan rivers 
ill they reached the north-western corner of China 
Proper. They met with the Jung in Western China, 
;he modern Sz c'hwen. These people have left descen- 
lants in the Nung, one of the most celebrated branches 
)f the Miau. The equivalent of the Mandarin initial 
T is in old Chinese N and JVL In 778 B.C., the Jung 
were powerful enough to kill an emperor 1 at the 
sapital, which was then in Southern Shen si. They 
vere soon afterwards driven back. At present one of 
;he tribes bordering on Yunnan is called Nu i, or 
;he Nu barbarians. Here the same name occurs, but 
without the final ng. The Chinese also met in their 
earliest wanderings other sections of the Himalaic 
nigration in Hunan, viz., the three Miau tribes, and 
;he Lai and Nung in North-eastern China. The old 
lames in China of rivers, tribes, and mountains are 
jut one word, and appear to have been all mono- 
.yllabic. From this it may be inferred that the 
various aborigines all spoke monosyllabic languages. 

The present spoken language of the Chinese, as 
ised over two-thirds of China, is called Kwan hica, and 
1 Legge's "Shoo king," p. 615. 



36 china's place in philology. 

by Europeans, the Mandarin dialect. The term Man- 
darin is of Portuguese origin and means commander. 
Indispensable as it seems, it is a name which cannot 
be defended, except on the ground of convenience. 

The northern Mandarin is spoken in the capital and 
in the four north-eastern provinces : Chili, Shantung, 
Shansi, and Honan. It has also spread itself through 
Manchuria and parts of Mongolia by colonization. 
The Manchus in Girin and Kwantung form but a 
tithe of the population, and have long forgotten their 
native tongue. The northern Mandarin is also spoken 
partially in Shensi and Hupe. 

The western Mandarin is spoken in Kansu and 
Sz c'hwen, Kweicheu and Yunnan, and partially in 
Shensi and Hupe. Portions of Kwangsi and Hunan 
also belong to its area. 

In the modern Mandarin language the old sonant 
initials g, d, b } v, z, have disappeared. But they are 
retained in the dictionaries of the book language. So 
also the final letters k, t, p, once abundant at the end 
of syllables, have been entirely lost over the whole of 
Northern and Western China. 

The northern and western Mandarin are differen- 
tiated principally by the Ju sheng tone class. The 
immense group of words, amounting to nearly a fourth 
of the vocabulary, belonging to this tone class are in 
the northern Mandarin irregularly distributed among 
the other four classes. In the western, on the other 



THE OLD MIDDLE DIALECT. 37 

hand, they have all gone to swell the Hia ping class, 
which has thus come to embrace about a third of the 
entire vocabulary. 

The southern Mandarin, which retains the Ju sheng 
as a distinct class, prevails at Nanking, in the north 
part of Kiangsu and Anhwei, and partially in Hunan. 
Its area is a belt of varying width, extending from the 
ocean at the mouth of the Yang tsz kiang and the old' 
mouth of the Yellow River to Chang sha in Hunan. 

The old middle dialect is spoken at Sucheu, Shang- 
hai, Hangcheu, and Mngpo, and has the distinctive 
characteristic of possessing the old thirty-six initials 
and four tones as used in the syllabic spelling. 
Kan gin's Dictionary and the native tonic dictionaries 
all register an ancient pronunciation, which, so far as 
the initials and the medials are concerned, is best 
represented at present by the old middle dialect. Its 
area embraces Chekiang and the southern part of 
Kiangsu. It then proceeds westward through Anhwei 
and Kiangsi into Hunan, where, near the boundary 
of Sz c'hwen, it meets the western Mandarin. 

This dialect is invaluable for the study of the old 
Chinese language. A knowledge of its peculiarities 
renders the syllabic spelling, now eleven or twelve cen- 
turies old, perfectly available ; and thus the sounds of 
all characters may be known as they existed before the 
language underwent that great organic change which 
produced the Mandarin dialect in its three-fold form. 



38 



The assistance derived from the old middle dialect 
for research into the ancient Chinese language needs to 
be supplemented by the southern dialects, which are 
also, especially in regard to their final letters, of great 
archaeological value. The lost finals, m, k, t, p, are 
retained with almost perfect uniformity in the dialects 
of Canton, Chaucheu, and Amoy. The dialects of 
Fucheu and Hweicheu, and that called the Hakka, are 
less valuable in research, being situated on a line of 
transition. The relation of French to Latin resembles 
that of Mandarin to the Canton and Amoy dialects. 
Am, " dark," Latin umbra, " shade," has become an 
in Mandarin, as mum, " his," has become son. Kot, 
"to cut," has become ko in Mandarin, as gladius has 
become glaive, and traditor, trditre. The root kot, " to 
cut," appears in gladius, with the sonants g and d, 
instead of the surds k and t. It is also found in 
coedo, "to cut," culter, "a knife,' , and the English 
cut. The I inserted in gladius and culter is dropped 
in the French couteau. The Japanese call " a sword," 
katana. The Mongols say hadahu, " to cut," " to 
reap." The Tamul- speaking people of Southern India 
say katti for " a knife." The Hebrew word for " to 
cut off branches " was gadang, J^ll In the case of 
a wide-spead root like this, found in so many families, 
it is certainly no slight advantage to have the ancient 
form well preserved in the south-eastern dialects of 
China. 



JAPANESE AREA. 39 

The Japanese language, spoken and written, is 
much mixed with Chinese. The Chinese language, 
literature, and customs were introduced there in or 
about the first, fifth, and seventh centuries of the 
Christian era. In addition to many thousand Chinese 
words, introduced with the contemporary pronuncia- 
tion and still kept unaltered in the language, the 
native vocabulary of words is also very extensive. 
The first Chinese immigration was probably Tauist, 
and perhaps chiefly intended for the propagation of 
religious opinions; but it spread also the Confucian 
literature and morality, and gave the Japanese the 
alphabet of fifty letters which they still use. The 
temples and habits of life and thought of the Sinto 
priesthood resemble those of the ancient Chinese 
Tauists of the Han dynasty, who did not use images. 
During four or five centuries before the arrival of the 
Buddhists, a.d. 400, the influence of China in Japan 
continued, and this was the period when the Sinto 
system, with its numerous Kami, " spirits " or " gods," 
became consolidated. From a.d. 400, during the intro- 
duction of the Go won, "Wei pronunciation," and To 
won, " Tang pronunciation," there was an immigration 
of Buddhist priests of various Chinese schools. They 
aided in continuing that powerful impulse which ended 
in the establishment of a complete system of Chinese 
instruction throughout Japan, and the universal pro- 
fession there of the Buddhist faith. From this time 



40 china's place in philology. 

every youth learned the language of Confucius at 
school, and the Colloquial Chinese of the period became 
mixed with the national language to a most remark- 
able extent, for the ordinary purposes of life as well as 
for the exigencies of the scholar. 

Eut in regard to the Japanese native idiom and 
vocabulary, what is it ? It bears a manifest resem- 
blance to the Mongol. The root takes polysyllabic 
suffixes and vowel prefixes in both languages. The 
verb is placed at the end of the sentence, and is pre- 
ceded by its object. The case particles are syllabic 
suffixes attached to nouns. In Akari wo tomoshi, 1 " to 
light a lamp or candle," wo is the case suffix for the 
objective case. Akari, "a light," is the Mongol gerel 
with a vowel prefix, in Chinese kwang. Tomoshi is the 
Chinese tiem, "to light," "kindle," with verbal suffix 
oshi. The Japanese, in regard to pronouns and sub- 
stantive verbs, is more like the Chinese than the 
Mongol, but in respect of syntax and polysyllabic 
derivation, it is manifestly like the Mongol, Manchu, 
and Turkish. It is then Turanian, but it does 
not bear so close an appearance of kindred to the 
Tartar languages as they do to each other. Their 
having in common the first personal pronoun and 
substantive verb in b and m, links these three modes 
of speech together as first cousins, while the Japanese, 
Corean, and Tamul languages, from the want of 
1 See Hepburn's "Japanese Dictionary." 



COREAN AREA. 41 

these prominent features, are but as second or third 
cousins. 

Hence, for the convenient classification of the Tur- 
anian system, three sub-families are required : — 

1. The Tartar, comprising Mongol, Manchu, 
Turkish, etc. 

2. The Japanese, embracing Japanese, Aino, and 
Corean. 

3. The Dravidian, including Tamul, Telugu, etc. 
That the Corean language should be placed in close 

family relationship with the Japanese cannot be doubted, 
when it is remembered that there is in it no trace of 
the favourite Tartar and Indo-European pronoun and 
substantive verb in b and m y and that it resembles the 
Mongol and Japanese in placing the verb at the end of 
the sentence, immediately following its object, and in 
adding to the roots polysyllabic suffixes. For the sen- 
tence " this room has two windows," the Coreans say 
i k'utul, " this room," t'ul c'hang isir, " two windows 
has." The pronoun i, "this," is in Mongol ene, "this," 
in Chinese «, " that." K'utul may be the Mongol ger, 
"house," and Chinese Ma, ke, "home." T'ul reminds us 
of the Persian du and English two. C'hang is borrowed 
from the Chinese c'hwang, " window." Isir is probably 
the Chinese yeu, " to have," with suffix sir. 

The Japanese ware shiranai, " I do not know," where 
ware is " I " and nai is " not," may be compared with 
the Corean na, "I," aji, "know," mothar, "not." 



42 china's place in philology. 

Like the Japanese, the Coreans study Chinese litera- 
ture, and mix Chinese words with their own in the 
common intercourse of life. An immigration of Chinese 
Buddhists, continuing for several centuries, communi- 
cated to the language a large Chinese element. The 
introduction of French words like adieu into English 
may be adduced as an example of the same kind of in- 
fluence on our own language. The Chinese sacred books 
are read in schools throughout Corea, and the doctrines 
of Confucius inculcated. The Corean alphabet made 
for them by the Buddhists on a Tibetan or Sanscrit 
model, is now used to write the mixed languages as at 
present spoken. 

The Aino language spoken on Yesso has the Japanese 
polysyllabic formation and laws of position, and is 
without the substantive verbs and personal pronouns 
in m and b. It is therefore a Turanian language, 
and is to be classed with the Japanese branch. 

The best type of the Tartar sub-family of the Turanian 
languages is apparently the Mongol. The Turks have 
always been much mixed with the Persians, who early 
occupied Bactria. That country, indeed, is spoken 
of in the Zendavesta as the original home of the Arian 
religion. Though called Turkestan by our geographers, 
it was Persian before it was Turkish, and its Persian 
population are the Tadjiks of the present day, and the 
°fc $£ Ta shih, 1 old sound Da zhik, of Chinese historians. 

1 In the Chinese dynastic histories, the Arab conquests are attributed to 



MONGOL AND TURKISH AREA. 43 

They pressed over the passes of the T'sung ling chain, 
called by the Turks Mustag, "Ice Mountains," into 
Chinese Turkestan ; here they became mixed with the 
Wigur Turks, as at Bokhara with Usbeks, Turcomans, 
and other races. The result has been that the Turks 
of Yarkand, Cashgar, and Bokhara, as well as those of 
Constantinople, have assumed more of the Indo- 
European appearance than is seen in the Mongols Or the 
Manchus. This is true also of the Mahommedans who 
have crowded into North China during the Sung, Yuen, 
and Ming dynasties. This numerous class, coming, as 
their traditions say, from Bokhara and the other Turkish 
cities, have very much of the European head and phy- 
siognomy — their deep and horizontal eyes, prominent 
nose, with a tendency to a vertical facial angle, and to 
the growth of whiskers, bespeak western descent, and 
help to give them, among the surrounding Chinese, a 
characteristic and easily recognized physiognomy. This 
mingling of Turanian and European features of race 
has affected the Turkish language. The Mahommedan 
religion has also added many Arabic words which have 
been adopted into the Turkish, both of Constantinople 
and of Yarkand, with the other cities of Chinese 
Turkestan. The word Adam for " man," and ruh for 
" spirit," are used in the easternmost Turkish cities. A 
Bucharian vocabulary, translated by Klaproth from 

the Ta shih. This is through an error in their information. They did not 
learn the true name of the Arabs till more recently. 



44 



Chinese, and printed in the Asia Polyglotta, is entirely 
Persian. It is called in Chinese the language of the 
Hwei hwei or Mahommedans, who during the Ming 
dynasty appear to have been identified by the Chinese 
with the Persians, in regard to language, religion, and 
race. The Turkish is consequently so permeated by the 
Persian and the Semitic element introduced by religion, 
that it can scarcely be considered the best type of the 
Turanian languages ; especially is this true, because the 
relative pronoun, otherwise foreign to the Turanian 
family, is found in Turkish in its Persian form, and 
may best be regarded as borrowed from that language. 
The Persian influence on Turkish extends even beyond 
the boundaries of Mahommedanism, into Siberian 
dialects. In Castren's vocabulary of Turkish dialects 
in Siberia, Kudai, the Persian word for the Supreme 
Being, often identified with our term God, and the 
German Gott, is employed for "heaven" and for "God." 
Our word foot appears as put and but, which are quite 
Indo-European, the Persian being pal. 

The Mongol, therefore, may be viewed as a better 
Turanian type. It occupies scattered sections of that 
great belt of land which stretches from near the mouth 
of the Amoor to the banks of the Yolga, and from the 
Kokonor lake to the Alta'i mountains. In its eastern 
extension it meets with Tungus tribes and Chinese 
colonies of agriculturists, some of whom, near the 
banks of the Amoor, learn to speak better Mongol than 



MANCHU AREA. 45 

they do Chinese. The Buriat Mongols, east of the 
Baikal Sea, are also conterminous in area with Tungus 
tribes. West of the Gobi Desert the Mongols are 
mixed with a Turkish population, the descendants of 
the ancient Wigurs, and with various other tribes of 
the same race in Turkestan and European Eussia. To 
the south-west they come in contact with the Tibetans, 
and to the south-east with the Chinese. The Mongol 
language occupies the centre of the Turanian area so far 
as Tartary is concerned, and became a written language 
about five centuries ago, when, in the Yuen dynasty, 
it was -necessary for the fierce nomades of the great 
central plateau of Asia to accommodate themselves to 
the usages of civilized countries and commence the 
formation of a literature. They adopted the alphabet 
already in use among the "Wigur Turks and which had 
been given them by the Nestorian missionaries. Thus 
the present Mongol and Manchu alphabet (for the 
Manchus took theirs from the Mongols) was derived 
from the Syriac, through the missionary zeal of the 
Nestorian communities in "Western Asia. 

The Manchu language is spoken on the lower course 
of the Amoor by tribes under Chinese and Russian 
domination. In the Greek church mission, recently 
established there, the Manchu translation of the New 
Testament, made at Peking about 1805 by Lipoptsoff, 
is found to be intelligible and useful. This is the 
version published by the British and Foreign Bible 



46 china's place in philology. 

Society. In the Chinese province of Hei lung kiang, 
north of Girin, the Manchu language would seem to 
have lost ground and to have contributed to the Mon- 
gol area, for the Chinese colonists there speak Mongol 
fluently. In the provinces of Girin and in sea-board 
Manchuria Chinese is the common speech. If we 
would look elsewhere for spoken Manchu, it must be 
among the Tungus tribes of Siberia, found scattered 
at various localities east of the Baikal. In Peking 
Manchu is spoken as a Court language, and learnt for 
that purpose from teachers. It is also extensively 
written as a documentary language. Numerous helps 
exist for the study of it in the form of translations, 
dictionaries, and phrase books, published at Peking. 
The study of the language is maintained in all the 
Manchu garrisons in the eighteen provinces of China 
Proper, and in Mongolia. A syllabary is used of about 
1,000 syllables. Where the Mongol writing was 
deficient in the power of distinguishing sounds, the 
Manchu has added special marks, so that the mode 
of writing indicates the pronunciation satisfactorily, 
which is far from being true of the Mongol. 

The Tibetan, perhaps the most convenient type of 
the Himalaic languages, has been well opened to obser- 
vation by the Dictionaries and Grammars of Csoma de 
Koros, Schmidt, and others. These two grammarians 
have not, however, considered the tones, which in a 
monosyllabic language become of special importance. 



TIBETAN AREA. 47 

Georgi's notice of the Tibetan tones is only sufficient 
to show that they are of the same nature as the 
Chinese. We have not yet any comparative lists of 
common words in the Anamitic, Siamese, Burmese, 
Tibetan, and Chinese languages made with reference 
to their intonations, by help of which the general 
laws of tones for all this widespread family might be 
investigated. 

The Tibetan language spreads from Ladak, the most 
northerly of our British Indian possessions, to Sz 
c'hwen, where it meets the Chinese area. Its eastern 
member is the Si Fan dialect. The nomade Mongols 
also occupy Eastern Tibet, and are there mixed irregu- 
larly with the Si fans. 

Crossing the Himalayas we find the Dravidian area 
occupying hill districts in Northern India and the 
plains and mountains of the South. Among the lan- 
guages of this family, the Tamul is the best to use as a 
type. It is spoken by ten millions of people, extending 
on the east coast from Cape Comorin to a point eighty 
miles north-west of Madras, and on the west coast from 
Cape Comorin to Trivandrum. 1 

The Dravidian family is cut off from its relatives in 
Tartary and Tibet by the intrusion of a broad belt of 
the Indo-European area. The Arian invasion of India 
is supposed to have taken place about 2,000 years 
before the Christian era. Those who came into India 
1 Pope's " Tamil Handbook." 



48 china's place in philology. 

at that time spread the Sanscrit tongue, which was 
followed by the Pracrit, over three-fourths of India, 
and gave origin to the numerous group of languages 
known as Bengali, Sindi, Hindustani, Gruzarati, Urdu, 
and Marathi. 

The superior energy of the Indo-European race 
enabled it to conquer wherever it found a home. 
Europe and Asia Minor, Persia and Bactria, were all 
subdued and occupied by this powerful branch of the 
human family. 

Their home extended from Samarcand to Lisbon, and 
from Calcutta to the land of Thor, and the multiplied 
experiences of so wide a region tended to excite in 
their intellectual development a proportionate richness 
and variety. 

The gift of imagination was awakened in this race by 
residence in mountain scenery and around inland seas. 
They wandered far, they grew up amidst the most 
beautiful and varying landscapes. Their homes were 
among the great mountain chains of the world: the 
^ Himalayas, the Bolor Tag and Mustag of Bactria, the 
Caucasus, Mount Taurus, the mountains of Thessaly, 
and the Alps and Apennines. Their earliest navi- 
gators traversed the Black Sea and the Caspin, thv,° 
Archipelago and the Adriatic. Hence the ?jirit of 
freedom and the irrepressible sense of poetr, the 
tendency to speculation and the keen appetite for 
science, that have always characterized this race. All 



INDO-EUROPEAN AREA. 49 

other races, except the Semitic, are comparatively 
wanting in these splendid gifts, which make the 
Indo-European nations the very flower and crown of 
humanity. 

A natural love for variety of experience, difficult 
travelling, and new scenes, led the earliest colonies of 
this favoured race to choose their homes where the eye 
and the hand, the mind and the body, should be exer- 
cised in due proportion, and thus the human species be 
rbrought higher up on the ladder of progress. The 
result we see in the wonderful expansion of philosophy, 
science, and literature among many nations of this 
race, ancient and modern, which has made Europe 
what it now is. 

The elder branch of the Caucasian race, the Semitic, 
occupying Syria, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylonia 
Judaea, and Arabia, was destined to do more for the 
religious culture of the race than any other linguistic 
family. The religious, moral, and spiritual impress on 
the European races had a parallel in the earlier lin- 
guistic influence which it appears to have exercised. 
The superior ease and fluency of European speech, 
compared with that of Eastern Asia, comes partly from 
the r^itive pronoun and partly from the liberty 
allowed i in the construction of sentences. Both the 
relative, and the freedom used in the position of verbs 
and words belonging to the other parts of speech, 
probably come from the influence of Hebrew and its 



50 



cognate languages. On the Chinese side of the Hima- 
layas, and of the Persian- and Russian-speaking area, 
the laws of position in sentences are fixed, and there is, 
properly speaking, no relative pronoun. It was not, 
then, from this side that the Arians, the youngest of 
races, derived their freedom in syntax, leading to a 
beauty and expansion in poetic expression which are 
inconceivable to the less imaginative races. These 
characteristics, with the genders of nouns and the 
voices of verbs, came from the influence exercised by 
the combined Hamite and Semitic races on the 
early language of the world. The Semites were 
always neighbours to the Hellenes and the Persians. 

The influence of old Turanian languages on the 
formation of the Indo-European system was favoured 
to an equal degree by geographical contiguity. Colo- 
nies belonging to this stock were sprinkled over 
Western Asia in many localities; and in the Persian 
area, Iran and Turan from the dawn of history stood 
in close contact to each other and in hostile attitude. 

The polysyllabic development of the Arian lan- 
guages, their case and tense suffixes, together with 
such vestiges as they retain of a law relegating the 
verb rigidly to the end of the sentence, are the effect 
of Turanian influence. 



CHAPTER IY. 

On the Primeval Language.— It was Monosyllabic— Examples. — 
Pronouns. — Laws of Position. — Laws or Ehythmus. — Pro- 
nominal Eoots also Verbs. — Closed Syllables, a Proof of 
Man's Continental Origin. — Early "Use of the final M. — 

9 Names of Animals. — Divine Origin of Language. 

Without venturing to discuss, except very cur- 
sorily, the origin of language, I shall here first attempt 
to mark out some of the common elements existing in 
the speech of all nations which seem to belong to a 
primeval language older even than the Chinese and the 
Egyptian. The mother from whom all existing dia- 
lects have been born may possibly be revealed to our 
view by carefully rejecting all new elements and 
retaining what appear to be universal. 

That it was monosyllabic is deducible from the fact, 
that in all the families, from the Indo-European 
upwards, the roots are monosyllables. The words 
separation and departure, for example, are traced to the 
Latin Part in pars, partis. The r is lost sight of in the 
Sanscrit bheda, " dividing," bhedita, " divided," bhinna, 
"separated." It occurs in a dissyllabic form in the 
Hebrew badak, " split " (Latin fidit), and badad and 



52 china's place in philology. 

badal, " divided," and without a third consonant in the 
Hebrew bad, "separation." The Chinese is Bit, Pit, 
" separate," " other." 

Our words rotation and radiation are traced to rota, 
"a wheel," and radius, from the same root, Bad or Bot, 
German rad, " wheel," Sanscrit lut, " roll about." In 
Tamul we find urutchi, " roundness," and urul, " a 
carriage- wheel." The Chinese call " a wheel " Lun, 
and many round things, as " a stove," " a cottage," " a 
skull," " a reed," are known as Lu, where a final t has 
been lost. Musical pipes they call Lut. The same 
idea of roundness is found, more or less remotely, in 
the English rod, reed, oar, row, round. The German 
ruder, " oar," rudern, " to row," compared with the 
Greek eretmos, "oar," eresso, "row," Latin remus, "oar," 
remigo, " row," throw light on the origin of the word 
oar, and enable us to trace it to the same root with the 
others. The Chinese Lu, for Lut, is a scull, such as is 
used in China for propelling a boat by stern action. 

When we have arrived in such investigations at the 
monosyllabic root Lut, Bad, Bot, our progress is en- 
tirely checked, and we are left to conclude that the 
primitive speech of man was monosyllabic, and con- 
tained in it such widespread roots as the two just 
given. 

Father and mother must be admitted without hesita- 
tion into the primeval vocabulary of the human family, 
for though some nations, as the Mongols, appear to 



PRIMEVAL MONOSYLLABLE. 53 

want them, nine-tenths of the inhabitants of Europe 
and Asia agree in their use. Of course they must be 
accommodated to the necessities of infancy by cutting 
off the second syllable of the. English form and 
changing the initial / into p, or, still better, into b. 
The Turks in saying Baba for " father " are more 
primitive than any. The Semites in saying ab and em 
for " father " and " mother " gratified a tendency to 
prefix vowels. In the Chinese fu, mu, we have the 
newest form of what was a few centuries ago Bo, Mo. 

The claims of brother to a place in the primeval 
vocabulary are quite hopeless. It appears to be un- 
known in Asia beyond the Indian and Persian area. 
There is more hope for sister than for brother. It may 
perhaps be recognized in the Chinese Tsie for an older 
Si or So, used in the sense of elder sister. 

The names of number differ so widely in the various 
Asiatic languages that they are not to be expected to be 
Very ancient. 

Of the pronouns, a and nga or ga for the first person, 
u, mi, and yu for the second, and i, gi, hi for the third, 
may claim a very high antiquity ; for their widespread 
use through the linguistic families is a palpable and 
striking fact. 

For the first person we find the old Chinese ffi nga 
and ^ yo or o, of which the latter, being without an 
initial consonant, suggests that the ng was prefixed 
afterwards. Another prefix consisting of a or e made 



54 



the Sanscrit ah am and Latin ego. The m final was a 
suffix also found in the Chinese ^ am, a dialect form 
for "I" The Hebrews added nochi, anochi, "I" The 
Arabs said ana, and the Egyptians anok. There appear 
to be very few languages in any part of the world 
that do not in their pronominal forms betray the 
presence of this root. The same is not true of the 
pronoun in m, which is almost entirely limited to the 
Indo-European and Tartar languages. Bi, men, "I," 
and manai, " my," are as common in Tartary as me, 
mein, metis, e/-to? in Europe, but there is not a trace of 
them to be found in China, Tibet, or Japan. Quite as 
little are they known in the Dravidian area or in the 
islands of the Eastern seas. The Mongol riding into 
Peking on his camel, says, manai bic l hig, for "my 
book," and the Manchu student learns from his in- 
structor, manai bit-he, in the same sense, while the 
German, in a region 100° of longitude further west, 
says, mein Buch. But these words, in their European 
or Tartar form, are alike foreign to the Chinese ear, 
and to that of all the races, Arab or Hebrew, Tamul, 
Corean, Tibetan, Burmese, or Malay. While, there- 
fore, the pronoun a, nga, Jcau, or go, for our English I, 
represents the primeval pronoun of the first person 
with great probability, the root in m and b, with its 
correlate substantive verb, be, bin, futurus, fume, in 
Mongol, amoi, bolhu, bolmoi, can be traced no farther 
back than the Turanian family in its Tartar branch, 



NATURAL ORDER OF WORDS. 55 

from which it has gone over into the last great lin- 
guistic formation, the Indo-European. 

The structure of sentences in the primeval language, 
it may be reasonably concluded, was according to the 
order of nature. The nominative preceded the transi- 
tive verb, and the transitive verb preceded its object. 
The Chinese, the Hebrew, and the English here agree. 
It is the Turanian family that is chiefly at fault when 
tested by these laws. The Japanese, the Mongols, the 
Tamuls, and the speakers of Sanscrit, evidently follow- 
ing an older asus loquendi found in the contemporary 
Turanian speech, resolutely limit the verb to the last 
place in the sentence, and make the accusative precede 
it. This is extremely unnatural, and tends to restrict 
painfully the powers of human speech. Nature first 
names the actor, then the mode of his action, and 
finally the person or thing on whom or on which such 
action is performed. But Turanian speakers avoid this 
construction. Ching-gis hagan airiben t'umen k'umun 
alaba, " Grenghis Khan many ten thousands of men 
killed." The western branches of the Indo-European 
family refused to imitate the speakers of Sanscrit in 
their slavish adherence to this Turanian law, and 
succeeded in restoring the freedom of nature to our 
modern European modes of speech. 

So again, in placing the adjective before its substan- 
tive, the Chinese, English, and Turanian languages 
have a clear advantage over the Semitic, the eastern 



56 china's place in philology. 

Himalaic, the Malay, and the Polynesian, which invert 
this order. The adjective naturally precedes the noun, 
as the mark of the species precedes that of the genus. 
We know a thing from its qualities. The " Bactrian 
camel " may be called the " Camel of Bactria," or " le 
chameau Bactrien." Of these, the first is the most 
natural, and is favoured by the greatest number of 
important languages and families. The second form, 
inverting the position of the words and connecting 
them by of, de, von, etc., adds greatly to the ease and 
variety of language. But it is almost exclusively 
European and Semitic. 1 The Sanscrit follows the 
Turanian and Chinese order in this respect, and thus it 
is shown that, although she may lay claim to be the 
model of the European languages in regard to her 
richly developed system of grammatical inflexions, she 
cannot be looked to as their mother in syntactical order. 

It is to the Semitic family that we must look for the 
origin of this inversion, and also for the introduction of 
the relative pronoun. 

The third form, " le chameau Bactrien," is not so 
much a peculiarity of any one family, as of languages 
occurring here and there in the area of various families. 
Its introduction has conferred no great advantage on 
language. 

1 I suppose the post-position of the genitive and of the adjective to 
have been borrowed from the Semitic by the Polynesians, Siamese, and 
other races. 



PRIMEVAL PROSODY. 57 

"We have now arrived at several approximate notions 
of a rudimentary kind with regard to the primeval 
language. 

1. It was monosyllabic, and its syllabary, though 
containing no double consonants, had probably con- ^ 
sonant finals, as bid and loci. 

2. Certain roots, verbal and pronominal, are so 
widely spread among the various linguistic families 
of Europe* and Asia, that a large portion of the 
primeval vocabulary may be expected to reveal itself 
as the reward of careful research. 

3. The order of words in sentences was that of 
nominative and verb, verb and object, adjective and 
substantive, subject and predicate, species and genus. 
The common laws of position in the primeval language 
probably agreed with those of the Chinese, Greek, 
English, and some other languages in such sentences 
as Charles beat William, good man, this man is good, or 
this man good, fir tree. When two or more verbs 
occurred, the order was that of time. Our sentence, 
went near and killed him, would be " go near kill," or 
" go approach kill," and some device would be con- 
trived to represent past time. 

4. The primeval language had probably a rudi- 
mentary tonic pronunciation. Variety in pitch, even 
tones, inflexions, pauses, accents, long and short quan- 
tity, belong more or less to all the tongues spoken 

The Greeks inflected the vowels of 



y 



v 



58 



certain syllables in their words. The Chinese do the 
same with their monosyllables, and so do all the neigh- 
bouring peoples on the west and south. The Hebrews 
had an elaborate system of accents. The Greek and 
Chinese inflexions exist in modern European languages, 
but without attachment to special words or syllables. 
Probably this last was the character of the primeval 
prosody. The speech of modern Europe, struggling 
for greater freedom, rebelled against the prosodial laws 
which prevailed in the old Indo-European, Semitic, and 
Chinese areas, and by a powerful instinct succeeded in 
recovering the primeval use of inflexions and accents. 
These aids to a natural, efficient, and graceful elocution 
should never become dialectic, or be tied to particular 
words. If language were what it ought to be, all local 
tones would cease, and those windings of the voice, 
simple or circumflex, which in England constitute the 
local habit of dialects, and in China are an element in 
particular words, would be limited to elocutionary uses. 
Thus language would be ennobled, the intercourse of 
men with each other would become refined, and the 
swiftly changing feelings of the heart would all have a 
suitable expression. 

Among the elements of the primeval language, 
capable of discovery by comparative philology, I omit 
the distinction between verbal and pronominal roots. 
All the pronouns seem to be used as verbs. It was 
when the eye of primitive man saw action that his 



PRONOMINAL BOOTS ALSO VERBS. 59 

hand pointed to the moving object, and if his lips 
uttered a sound it was an imitation of the natural 
sound caused by the movement he witnessed. Speech 
became the instinctive imitation of natural sounds, and 
words were the names both of objects and actions. 
How then could the pronouns fail to be also verbs ? 
Thus, bad, "divide," "separate," "depart," was also 
in old Chinese used for " that," " he," and called pat 
or pit, $r now known as pi. Do, " to give," is the 
same word as that, das, etc. The Chinese locative case 
suffix chung, " middle," more anciently" tang, is, when 
employed as a verb, used in the senses "to strike in 
the middle," " to strike," " to undertake." As an 
adjective it means " middle," as in " the Middle King- V 
dom," and as a substantive it is the name of a " bell." 

A further proof is found in the fact that the instru- 
mental case suffixes are like others formed from pro- 
nouns, but they must from the nature of the case also 
be verbs. In fact, post-positions, like prepositions, are 
all verbs. All case suffixes, as well as case prefixes, 
may be explained, according to circumstances, either 
as demonstratives or as verbs. The nominative, 
possessive, and accusative case suffixes are most con- 
veniently explained as demonstratives. The case suf- 
fixes which express instrumentality, motion from, 
motion to, giving, and locality, are best considered as 
verbs. 

Should it be objected to this view that every verb 



v 



60 



would then become a pronoun, it may be answered 
that, for reasons not difficult to discover, the only verbs 
used as pronouns would be those that occurred most 
commonly, such as giving, going, coming, being, leaving, 
carrying. The early forms of such verbs as these by 
perpetual recurrence established themselves as pro- 
nouns ; e.g., the pronoun I, " he," is probably identical 
with 7, "to go." Such verbs as only find their way 
into conversation now and then would not become 
pronouns. 

It appears to have been an important feature in 
the primeval language that the syllabary had both 
open and closed vowels. Many modern languages 
have no closed syllables. They were rare in Sanscrit 
and are still more so in Japanese. It is susceptible of 
proof that the primeval syllabary was not one of this 
kind. Races occupying areas where enervation is in- 
duced by climate are liable to lose the final letters of 
their syllabaries. Nations that spread themselves over 
mountainous areas and cultivate hardy habits show 
less tendency to the disintegration of their roots. The 
absence of final consonants is the result of phonetic 
decay, or the addition of vowels through change in 
climate and in national habits, or through foreign 
influence, and other causes. Hence man must have 
been created in a temperate climate and in a continental 
locality. 

On the hypothesis that words were first formed from 



« ! 08BD n ii m.i i 1. ^l 

tlic imitation of natural sounds, it may be expected 
t licit both kinds of syllables will occur. Sounds ending 
in vowelfl and in consonants occur abundantly in nature, 
U is shown by the spelling of imitative words in our own 
language, >.;/., peewit, cue/wo, dingdong, hiss, hush, etc. 

There are other reasons why some words should 
terminate with certain consonants. Words ending 
in m and j), are usually expressive in Chinese 
of combination, closing, holding in the mouth, 
union, taste, containing, e.g., yap, " combine," /cam, 
"sweet," ijvm, " salt," gam, "hold in the mouth," 
"contain," k'am, "hollow," "deficient." The final 
letter seems in these and similar examples to indicate 
that the words where it is found are expressive of 
actions which are easily represented by the mouth 
opened or closed. Emptiness or deficiency would be 
fitly pictured by an open mouth, union by a mouth 
eliding. But the labial letters m and p, which would 
be brought into requisition on such occasions, would 
naturally be used, because the shaping of the lips in 
forming them was a not unlikely manner of expressing 
the ideas to be conveyed. In English gap and gape are 
nearly alike in sound. The labial p with which they 
terminate may be accounted for in the same way. Gap 
in old Chinese means "to combine," "press under the 
anus," "narrow," "a narrow pass through mountains," 
"books fastened together with two boards and straps," 

"the action of Bcissors.' 4 We may explain the filial p 



62 



as expressing the action of the lips, in imitating the 
act of pressure witnessed by the word-maker, when he 
first encountered the problem how to describe intelli- 
gently to his companion the events he had witnessed. 
The meaning of the root in English and Chinese 
coalesces when a narrow opening among mountains is 
in both languages called gap. The initial g will then 
be left to be accounted for on the principle of the 
imitation of natural sounds. 

Should a root once become established in use, the 
principle of association of ideas would explain the 
origin of a multitude of connected words. The adverb 
" back " is to be derived from the substantive " back." 
The Chinese word for " the back " is pak. In Kwan 
hwa, the modern pronunciation, it is pel. It has for 
derivative meanings " to carry on the back," " to repeat 
lessons " (because the Chinese pupil always turns his 
back to the schoolmaster while repeating his tasks), "to 
turn back," or a run away," "the north," "to disobey," 
etc. We find the some root in /3aard^o), fero, bear, 
porto, etc. For all these words, with a multitude more, 
one root bak, as we may judge from the Chinese 
analogy, would be approximately the original form, 
and it might be the imitation of sound. The finals k 
and g occur not seldom in words imitative of sounds, as 
flagellation, thwack, strike, and the Chinese p f ak to "strike 
gently," which is identical with the root of flagellum, 
plaga, tz}J)<j<hd, the I being inserted later. The thwack 



NAMES OF ANIMALS. 63 

of a whip is to one ear dak, and to another bah. The 
twang of a bow to the Chinese is kong 9 to the Greek it 
was tok, and to the speaker of Latin dok, which became 
to%ov and arms, the d becoming r, and the vowel a 
being prefixed. But to the Teuton bak was the sound, 
as it would appear from the verb beagen, bow, and the 
substantive bow. The Russian luk, " bow," is evidently 
of the same origin as arcus and to%ov. So also the 
Arabic raka'a, " to bow." 

In the Biblical account of the origin of language, it 

is said that " God brought " the animals " to Adam to 

see what he would call them, ana? whatever Adam 

called every living creature, that was the name 

thereof." In accordance with this statement, while it 

was by divine assistance that primitive man made 

language, it was not without the active exercise of his 

own faculties. God placed the animals before him and 

made him feel that he must give them names. In 

doing this, he would in many cases imitate the sounds 

they uttered. The roar of the lion may have originated 

the words leo, lion, and roar. As r and I are both 

derivable very frequently from d, the primitive form 

may have been ru or du. The Hebrew is ari or arye. 

On the supposition, as philologists tell us, that r and the 

sibilants are interchangeable letters within the Semitic 

area, a word with a sibilant initial might be expected 

as a name for lion. In fact, in the Persian, which from 

the most ancient times came under Semitic influence, 



64 china's place in philology. 

the word for lion is shir. The Chinese word, shi, 
"Lion/' seems to be borrowed from the Persian. It 
occurs first in Chinese literature a little before the 
Christian era. 

Other animals would be named from the noise made 
by them in flying, as the " Kingfisher," which in old 
Chinese was called silt. Such a combination would as 
well represent the sound heard when that beautiful 
bird darts on its prey, as the combination shoot does 
in English and in Chinese the sound of an arrow which 
has just left the bow. The same root sat is used in 
Chinese to express the " hissing noise of water in ex- 
tinguishing fire," " to revile people," " to be grieved," 
and " to be broken to pieces." The modern forms it 
takes are t'sui and suy. 

The scriptural account is restricted to the naming 
of animals. This is in harmony with the fact that 
language was gradually formed. The opinion has been 
very generally held, that man had extraordinary divine 
aid in the construction of language. This would pro- 
bably consist, partly, in a special control and guidance 
exercised over him, impelling him to the use of the 
language forming faculties, and partly in the positive 
communication to him of such parts of the primitive 
language as were necessary for the carrying on of those 
interviews which took place between God and himself 
in Paradise. Enough of language was taught our first 
parents by revelation to make existence a pleasure, to 



DIVINE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. 65 

lead them to understand each other's wants and feel- 
ings, the first duties of religion, the requirements of a 
simple agriculture, the preparation of food, the con- 
struction of a suitable habitation. They learned how to 
make the first rude attempts at clothing and how to 
take care of domestic animals. Such instruction is 
implied in the words, " The Lord God made for Adam 
and his wife coats of skins, and clothed them." Dr. 
Magee (On the Atonement, Dissert. 53) says, "It is 
sufficient if we suppose the use of language taught him 
with respect to such things as were necessary, and that 
he was then left to the exercise of his own faculties for 
further improvement upon this foundation." 

Revelation was to primitive man what instinct is 
and always has been to the lower animals. The same 
paternal wisdom which teaches the bird to build its 
nest, gave to the first men by direct instruction the 
necessary knowledge to make life happy, and to give 
the human race a good start on its long career. Man 
was created with physical, social, moral, and religious 
instincts. They were at first called into exercise by 
suitable teaching. This seems the only reasonable way 
of accounting for the common notions of morality that 
prevail among all nations, and the monotheistic tradi- 
tion which underlies the religious thought of all ancient 
literatures. Hence the superior antiquity of moral 
words in language over those specially suited for 
science and philosophy, which are always of later 

5 



66 china's place in philology. 

origin. The moral element inheres in all language, 
and the fundamental moral ideas remaining there after 
many millenniums of waste and wear, are vestiges 
of the primeval revelation granted for their early- 
guidance to our first forefathers. If man had been 
without reason, instinct would have been a sufficient 
director ; but having also the high endowments of the 
thinking and language-forming faculty, he needed that 
special teaching which, according to the Biblical 
account, he received. 



CHAPTER Y. 



The Chinese probably Hamites. — Chronology of the Deluge. — 
Genealogies in Genesis. — Ancient Semite Occupation of 
Persia. — Semitic Impress on the Himalaic Race. — The Chinese 
moved Eastward before the Confusion of Tongues. — The 
Chinese Ancient Syllabary recoverable from thftPhonetics. 
— Si x Fi nal Consonants. — The Surd Initials derived from 
the Sonants. - 



The most remarkable indication of change in the 
primitive language given in Scripture is at the Con- 
fusion of Tongues, which took place, according to the 
Septuagint chronology, 400 years after the Flood. 
This might not unreasonably be regarded as a limit for 
the continuance of the primeval language. Yet colon- 
ization must have been rapidly proceeding from the 
beginning. During the 2,200 years that elapsed 
between the Creation and the Flood, the speech of each 
band of emigrants would, after the lapse of a few 
generations, unconsciously assume a new form. The 
Scriptural account of the Deluge and of the Confusion 
of Tongues I suppose to refer particularly to the world 
according to its dimensions as then understood, the 



68 china's place in philology. 

iraa-a ol/eovfiivrj of the day. Colonies that went beyond 
the limits of the Flood of Noah, if there were such, 
were lost from view. The descendants of Seth were 
spread perhaps over what afterwards became the 
Semitic region. The Cainites went more to the 
east. Whether any of them and the other descen- 
dants of Adam passed into Eastern Asia and 
America during those 2,000 years now so little 
known, we cannot tell. If they did, they would there 
be beyond the reach of the Deluge, which science 
has shown did not extend to the more distant parts 
of the continent. 

Among the Cainites sprang up the arts of music, me- 
tallurgy, and the tending of cattle on a large scale. The 
first two of these features marked the ancient Chinese, 
but they were never a nomade people given chiefly to 
the care of flocks and herds. They were more like the 
Cushites than the Cainites. The art of writing, the 
idea of universal government, rather mark them out as 
descendants of Noah. When they came into China, 
they were not the first emigrants. Others had arrived 
before them. We therefore can scarcely be wrong 
in limiting the Chinese emigration to Post-JNoachic 
times, when the arts flourished sufficiently in the 
Babylonian region to allow of our identifying that 
locality with the original source of the Chinese 
civilization. 

The Deluge I suppose to have taken place upwards 



BIBLICAL GENEALOGIES. 69 

of 3,000 years before the Christian era. Hales states 
it at 3,155. Let us allow for it 3,500. The Call of 
Abraham he states at B.C. 2078. It was about this 
time that the Hindoo race took possession of North 
India, driving the Dravidian population before them. 
At this date also the Chinese were settled on the 
Yellow River under imperial chiefs, practising astro- 
nomy, agriculture, writing, and other ancient arts and 
sciences. It would be very conformable to the circum- 
stances of the case if we suppose that they came over 
from the west soon after the Deluge, and yet not too 
soon to allow scope for the previous development of the 
Cushite civilization. The Semite occupation of Baby- 
lon took place at nearly the same time. The Semites 
then came into possession of the regions they have 
held ever since, while the discomfited Cushites either 
taught their arts to their conquerors, originating the 
Phoenician alphabet, or carried them elsewhere. It 
was with an earlier time that the Chinese emigration 
is with most probability connected, viz., the age and 
race of Nimrod. 

The Christian apologist who desires to see the re- 
conciliation of Science and Scripture made thoroughly 
clear, must not be dismayed by the chronological diffi- 
culties connected with the genealogies given in the 
Book of Genesis. That the evangelist Matthew omiH- :d 
three names in the list of the kings of Judah who 
were ancestors of Jesus is a well-known fact. He 



70 china's place in philology. 

wished to aid the memory by recording three fourteens. 
In the genealogy of the patriarchs before the Deluge, 
ten generations are given, and in the interval between 
Noah and Abraham there are also ten names. It is 
not improbable that some names are omitted. "What 
took place so late as the time of Matthew may have 
occurred in the period of the early transmission of the 
Book of Genesis. These accounts of the early world 
were perhaps translated from the primitive mono- 
syllabic language into Hebrew, soon after the Semite 
conquest of Babylon, and may have been transmitted 
orally and by writing from the time of Noah. Moses 
may have used documents which came from the hands 
of more ancient inspired men. They would, if this 
supposition be correct, be among the earliest documents 
committed to writing. 

The Septuagint, Hebrew, and Samaritan copies of 
the Old Testament all differ in regard to dates and 
numbers in the early genealogy. Too often has it 
happened in the history of literature 1 that numbers 
have been tampered with for controversial purposes. 
Who shall say now which of these is the most trust- 
worthy ? Certainly the Septuagint chronology is the 
most advantageous for use in ethnological researches. 
The cramping of the Hebrew chronology is intolerable. 
There is no room for the development of races and the 

1 The Northern Buddhists state the birth of Buddha about b.c. 1100. 
The Southern Buddhists give it in about 500, and they are right. 



SEMITE OCCUPATION OF PERSIA. 71 

growth of languages between Noah and Abraham, if 
that scheme be adopted. 

Since Elam is mentioned among the sons of Shem, 
Persia, of which Elam was always one of the names, 
was probably a Semite country before it entered the 
Indo-European area on the arrival of the Persians. 
The cuneiform writing and the Phoenician alphabet 
were probably spread over the southern cities of that 
country early enough to allow for the Devanagari 
alphabet having been derived from a Semitic source. 
Attention has been recently again drawn forcibly to 
the strong resemblance existing between the old 
Sanscrit writing and the ancient Semitic alphabet, by 
Professor F. Miiller of Vienna. 1 Besides, the languages 
of Persia, from the Zend to the modern Persian, have 
always possessed more or less a Semitic syntax. There 
has also been Semite influence operating in the forming 
of the Himalaic and Dravidian languages. The mascu- 
line and feminine suffixes found in them are thus best 
explained. Further, the post-position of the genitive, 
for which Semitic grammar is so remarkable, is equally 
characteristic of the eastern Himalaic and Polynesian 
languages. I suppose, therefore, that South Persia 
was strongly Semitized in the third millennium before 
Christ, and that races which passed that way into 
India and Tibet derived certain linguistic elements 

1 Novara Expedition. Linguistischer Theil, p. 219, ff. 



72 



and articles of belief from the Shemite and Cushite 
inhabitants of the country. Hence the abstinence of 
the western Himalaic races from the flesh of the hog, 
and the remarkable religious traditions of the Karens 
of Burmah. 

In the languages of Tartary and China we do not 
find the same Semite impress. The syntax is not 
Semite, and masculine and feminine suffixes are un- 
known. The Chinese and Turanians proper may have 
come through Persia before it was Semite, or by the 
north part of the country where the Semite influence 
was then unknown. Thus it might happen that the 
Chinese, whose language is of older type, found 
Eastern and Southern China in the third millennium 
before Christ already occupied by races partially 
Semitized in their syntax. These ancient occupants 
of China were far less civilized than the Chinese, 
and travelled faster. 

That the Chinese have not been under a Semite 
influence appears clear when the laws of syntax are 
considered, as it also appears clear that the Eastern 
Himalayans were influenced by the Semites while they 
still spoke a monosyllabic language. 

It may therefore be not unreasonably supposed that 
the Chinese, and after them the Japanese and Tartars, 
leaving North Persia, were first attracted by the 
country of Bokhara, and, crossing the mountains, pro- 
ceeded by the Kashgar route eastward, always travel- 



EARLY EMIGRATION OF THE CHINESE. 73 

ling in a latitude of about 40° north. There are no 
passes through the Bolor Tag and Tsung ling 
mountains south of the Cashgar route, till you 
come to the Khyber Pass into Cashmere and India 
in about 34° lat. This would be the route of the 
Himalaic race, who, leaving Afghanistan and pene- 
trating into the beautiful valleys of Cashmere, went 
eastward into Tibet by Ladak and the upper course 
of the Indus. 

Under these conditions it would seem that the great 
breaking up of languages at the epoch marked in 
Scripture by the building of the Tower of Babel took 
place soon after the departure of the Chinese from 
Western Asia. The progress made by the Semite and 
other language systems is what is described as the 
Confusion of Tongues. The Chinese people may have 
remained in North Persia long enough to leave traces 
behind them or acquire a knowledge of the dual philo- 
sophy and the worship of angels and the powers of 
nature. At this time they may have been partially in 
juxtaposition with the Himalaic races, and those who 
have since become Malays and Polynesians, as well as 
with the triple-branched Turanians. Thus, some of the 
resemblances found in the languages spoken by these 
races may be accounted for. 

At least, we are very much under the necessity of 
alloY m g^ that the Chinese started on their Eastern 
pikrimage u late enough to bring with them the Baby- 



74 



Ionian arts, and early enough to retain the features of 
the primeval monosyllabic language more distinctly 
than any other old linguistic family has been able to 
do. The first great step in the development of human 
speech was taken in the formation of the Chinese 
language. 

While residing in Persia and Mesopotamia, the 
ancestors of the Chinese would both give and receive. 
The philosophy, religion, and language of the times 
were common. From the moment of separation 
changes would commence, and in every emigrant 
band, each new generation would see an advance 
towards that complete national individuality which it 
was destined eventually to achieve. 

It might be supposed by those who are fresh to the 
subject, that the task of searching for the old Chinese 
syllabary of the times of Yau and Shun was hopeless. 
But it is far from being so. The Chinese had already 
the knowledge of the art of writing, and the pre- 
servation of the phonetic element in the written 
characters is particularly favourable for investigation. 
Their use and signification have never been forgotten. 
"We are able to assign, in consequence, definite values 
to the phonetics without much difficulty, and the syl- 
labary of 4,000 years ago comes out to view in a com- 
paratively clear and trustworthy form. For example, 
the modern sin, " heart," Canton sem, Fu ks, -i sim, 
Cochin- Chinese tim, Tibetan sems, is kno^s traveave 



/ 



/ 



PRIMEVAL CHINESE SYLLABARY. 75 

been sim anciently, because it rhymes in all old poetry 
with words in m. But the poetry reaches back to 
eleven centuries before the Christian era, and earlier, 
and the characters were made, according to native 
opinion, B.C. 2300. In this way we are able to reach 
the conclusion that the final m and with it, by similar 
proofs, its correlates ng, n, k, t, p, the six consonant 
finals of the Chinese rhyming art in all ages, were also 
the six consonant finals of the earliest Chinese sylla- 
bary. The Greek to^ikov, 1 "poison," resembles acci- 
dentally the Chinese jjjs tu, old sound dok. The upper 
part of the Chinese character chu, "leader," "lord," ^ 
if we may argue from its use here as a phonetic, was 
probably once called tok, and still earlier dok. It is 
thus brought into agreement with the Latin duco, dux, 
and Greek Bet/cvvfu, and belongs to the verbal root dik, 
" to point," in Chinese Jjf ch'i, and in Latin and 
English doceo and teach. 

The following example will show the remarkable aid 
to philology afforded by the phonetics. In Callery's 
Systema Phoneticum jQ yuen, ^ wan, $£ yuen, j| 
yuen, are, as may be shown, equipollent phonetics, 
with the sounds wan, an, yuen, etc., and the meaning, 

1 The drug used for poisoning arrows was called to£ik6v, from ro^ov, "a 
bow." This word, again, was from rvyxduu Ztvxov, " to hit," " meet 
with," Chinese ^ cho, old sound dok, "to hit," "to be right," "yes," 
"put on clothing." The etymology cannot be easily traced of the 
Chinese for "poison." 



76 



CHINA S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



" roundness," " completion," " origin," " globule," and 
" circle." 



EaUIPOLLENT 
- PHONETICS. 


COMPOUND DERIVATIVE CHARACTERS. 


"jQ "origin." 


j^lj wan, " cut out in a round shape." 




5p| wan, "rude," "obstinate." 1 


% "bend." 


^ yuen, "canister," J^g " name of a sceptre." 




^ wan, "a bowl," ^g|J "cut out in a round shape." 




$J§ 2/««» "king of ducks," Latin anas. 




tk %% i% wm > "bowl," 1% "bean." 


^ "complete." 


$70 waw, " bind round." 




|^ www, "thigh bone," "that which bends." 


j| "round." 


[j] ^, "circle," gj| y«», "rhyme," 2 |J|| "fall." 


gj "cause." 


$Q ym, "marriage," »]^| yew, "smoke." 



None of these words, nor any of their derivatives, 
ever take initial consonants or undergo any alteration, 
except in vowels and an occasional change of the final 
n to its correlate t. We therefore conclude that 4,000 
years ago these words, and others with the same 
phonetics, began with a vowel and ended with n. The 
Latin vocabulary furnishes us with annus, " a year," 
annulus, "ring," anima, "breath," "the soul;" the 
Greek has alcov, "an age," with its equivalent cevum. 

1 As rudis, "rude," in Chinese »^ lu, lud, comes from rot, "round," 
viewed as unirapressible, so wan, "round," in Chinese is taken to mean 



Compare in Greek pvd{i6s, " rhyme," from rot, " round." 



PHONETICS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 77 

The Latin v has the force of w, as in vinum, Greek, oivo. 
The Russian v, written b, and pronounced v, has in 
these comparisons of words also the force of w. We 
find vina, " cause," vyenetz, " crown," " coronet," " cloud 
of glory," vyenok, " garland," vyenchat, " to crown." 
The English wind, wend, and wander, appear to be of 
the same family. Wind is anima, "breath," ventus, 
"wind," Sanscrit, an, "blow." The "vine" is that 
which winds. In Latin it takes t for n, as in vitis. 
Further, the Mongol has undus, " root," " source," and 
the suffix dus may be compared with nus, in annus, 
" year," and the d in the English wind. The principle 
of adding syllabic suffixes and cognate letters is the 
same. In Sanscrit we have vdna, " pipe," vanada, 
" cloud," venu, " bamboo," vata, " circle." The letter 
v is in fact w. Further, in the Dravidian vocabulary 
we meet with the Tamul undei, " a round thing," 
" a ball," " pill." In Chinese $fc yuen, signifies " a 
cause," and jl yun, " cloud," doubtless the same words 
originally as y^ yuen, "origin," and yen, "smoke." 
The Chinese yin, " marriage," when compared with 
yuen, " draw with the hand," suggests the Latin unio 
and our unite. In Greek eVo?, " a year," eVo?, also " a 
year," belong to the same family of words, and perhaps 
iv, "in," is the same with the Chinese @ "cause," 
" because." 

If we take another example with m final, the light 
thrown on the primeval form of the syllabary will be 



78 



seen still more plainly. The Latin umbra consists of 
the root um, and a common suffix bra, which may be 
compared with ber in imber, "rain," brai in tenebrai, 
bris in salubris. We have in Hebrew emesh, " night," 
"darkness," where sh is a suffix, as in kafash, "to 
cover," " overwhelm," cognate with Jcafar, " to cover," 
"forgive," Chinese |g kai, "cover," old sound, as known 
from the phonetic, hap. The Latin um, Hebrew am, as 
it reads without the points, with the sense of " shade," 
" darkness," " night," are in Chinese flg an, old sound 
am, " dark," [SJ yin, om, " obscure," " the principle of 
darkness in the dual philosophy," Jg yen, am, "to 
shade," " cover," j|f yin, om, " eaves." In Chinese 
buildings the eaves project far enough to make a 
broad shadow. These coincidences are quite sufficient 
to show that in the Chinese primeval syllabary m 
was the final letter in this root, and that the initial 
was a vowel. 

We thus by multiplying our researches in all parts 
of the Chinese vocabulary, always adopting the old 
pronunciation registered in Kanghi's dictionary and 
other older lexicographical works, arrive at the fact 
that the final letters ng, n, m, k, t, p, with the vowels, 
were the final letters of the pronunciation in use when 
the characters were made. And though they are much 
disturbed in the Mandarin dialect, they are retained to 
this day with an approach to faultless regularity in 
the Canton and Amoy dialects. They are also found 



INITIALS. 79 

in the Tibetan, Cochin-Chinese, and Siamese languages, 
all belonging to the allied Himalaic family. 

Having obtained this solid foundation of knowledge 
with regard to the final letters of the Chinese syllabary 
in use 4,000 years ago, we may proceed to inquire into 
the initials. Of these, the most certain are g, d, b y ng, n, 
m, I, z, dz, zh, and the vowels. Initials of the next stage 
of probability are the aspirates &', t\ p ( , Ps, the surds 
k, t, p, and the sibilants s, ts, sh. This difference in 
probability arises from the vestiges existing of an old 
law of change similar in part to Grimm's law, by which 
the sonants have always been throwing out words into 
the surd series. So numerous are the examples of this 
law, that it is open for consideration whether the surd 
series is not altogether made up of successive contri- 
butions from the sonants. 

Before giving examples of the sonant contributions 
to the surd series, let me premise that in the Amoy 
and Canton dialects, the surd and sonant series receive 
the name of upper and lower series, and are identical 
with the so-called four upper and lower tones. In 
other words, characters in each division are pronounced 
with special intonations of the voice, and thus distin- 
guished from the upper or surd division. Thus, £p 
bang, " even," . is at Amoy pieng in the lower first 
tone, while in the syllabic spelling of the dictionaries 
it is bang or biang in the first tone. In dialects having 
eight tones, words in the lower series may be trans- 



80 



ferred into the system of the dictionaries by changing 
the surd initials into sonants, and allowing the peculiar 
intonation to coalesce with that of the upper series. 

The word $* bang, "side," the English "bank," 
" bench," with its equipollent phonetics ~jf fang, 
"square," ffipang, "state," "kingdom," £p bang, "even," 
" peaceful," $fc bang, " side by side," etc., have together 
an extensive cluster of derivatives, some of which take 
b, and the rest p. The meanings are, " side," " even," 
" tie together," " tie," " impinge upon," " strike," 
" wings," " catalogue of names arranged side by side," 
" square," " anything square in shape," as a " territory," 
a " seal," etc., " edge," " mountain ridge," etc. Cor- 
responding words in European languages are impingo, 
" strike against," Trrjyvvfii,, " fix," pax, " peace," pack, 
bang, Jingo, fixi, etc. Two hard things brought into 
rapid contact caused a sound which primeval man 
heard as bang. Thus the peculiar phonal form of the 
root in the primitive syllabary of the world may have 
originated. It then came to mean "side," from the fact 
that the two portions of impinging matter remained 
side by side. Then the act of bringing them together 
and of holding them together, or of their coming 
together of themselves, were named with the same 
vowel and consonants. This gave rise to the words 
belonging to this family meaning "tie," "fasten," 
" fix." When evenness, physical or moral, had to be 
spoken of, the same root was used. 



SURDS DERIVED FROM SONANTS. 81 

But how do we find them spelled in Old Chinese? 
Chiefly with b. Yet in part also with p. " Evenness," 
" impinging," " side," " bringing side by side," are all 
bang. To "assist," "squareness," a "territorial square," 
to " tie," a " wing," to " imitate," are all pang. The 
reason of this is evident. Language instinctively seeks 
to enlarge her bounds when they become cramped by 
an increase of words and of ideas. She aims to remove 
ambiguity by introducing differences in pronunciation 
between like sounding words. 

In the example given the words initiated by b are 
the older. Those in p are the newer. The obvious con- 
clusion is that p derives its origin from b, and that b is 
an older letter than p. The primeval syllabary did not 
need so many letters as are now in use. It started 
with b, and added p, p f , and / afterwards as they were 
needed. In the Mongol syllabary there is no p, p ( , or 
/. There is a fully developed p in the Indo-European 
and Semitic families. Hence the p may have sprung 
up contemporaneously in the Chinese and Indo-Euro- 
pean families after their separation. In both cases it 
was by a natural putting forth of creative strength on 
the part of language to increase its alphabet and its 
syllabary. It is thus that the preponderance of b over 
p in the Sanscrit and Hebrew vocabularies may be best 
accounted for. That Latin and Greek dictionaries devote 
so much larger a space to words in p and / than to words 
in b is an indication of recent origin in the vocabularies. 

6 



82 



What is true of b in the old Chinese syllabary is 
true also of the other letters in the sonant and surd 
series. The sonants g, d, b, z, are the old letters ; the 
surds k, t, p, s, are more recent ; / and h seem to be 
the newest of all. In the Japanese transcription all 
Chinese words in h are written with k, while those 
which in modern Chinese commence with / are written 
with either b or h. But as h is the regular Japanese 
equivalent of the Chinese p, the weight of evidence is 
in favour of the statement that p and b were the old 
equivalents in all cases of the moderu Chinese /. If 
we carry back the inquiry another stage, p and b 
coalesce in the primeval and world-wide b. The 
Japanese, indeed, have an initial /; but as it is used N to 
write Chinese words in p as well as in /, it is probably 
a new letter. 

We should expect to find the name Buddha trans- 
cribed in old Chinese with something like exactness. 
We learn on investigation that the character ^ Fo, 
was anciently called But, as is shown by the syllabic 
spelling, in the Amoy pronunciation Put, and in the 
Japanese transcription Budzu. 

A few more examples are here appended. Among 
the sonants, ft bun, " divisions," " duties," j|| dan, 
" revolve in a circle," ^ bok, " return," Jf| gak, 
"learn," fljg ngang, u hard," $£ zung, "follow," jjlj 
bit, "other," |j| gun, "herd," sg ngu, "meet," J|| 
deng, " go up," have the following correlates in the 



TONES. 



83 



surd series, viz. : ft pun, " to divide " (Hebrew bin, 
Latin findo), $f tun, "revolve," "turn," English 
turn, 4t pok, "north," "back," gfc kak, "teach," pQ 
kong, "hard," "steel," ffc tsung, "let it be that," 
jjlj pit, " difference," % kun, " a body of troops," jg 
ku, "meet with," %£ teng, "go up." 

But it was not enough for language to add the surd 
letters to its acquisitions. The syllabary was still too 
contracted. "Words and ideas continued to multiply, 
and there was a scarcity of syllables to express them. 
The age of suffixes and prefixes had not yet arrived. 
It was too soon to think of dissyllables or polysyllables, 
of a prefixed s or an inserted r. Language in this 
time of need seized for the required service those 
flitting musical intonations of human speech which the 
orator uses to express decision, sarcasm, doubt, and 
interrogation. At this time there were in the Chinese 
vocabulary two great groups of words. Those ending 
with ng, n, m, and the vowels, formed one group, which 
we will call long in quantity. Those terminating in 
g, d, b, or k, t, p, formed another, in which the sound 
is shortened by the action of the final letters. They 
check the breath and bring the utterance to an abrupt 
conclusion. Hence these words become, for the pur- 
poses of tonic pronunciation, short in quantity. 

But final letters will drop off, through laziness in 
enunciation, through imitation of the defects of others, 
and from the circumstance that, when stress is laid by 



84 china's place in philology. 

the speaker on some one element of sound, the other 
elements will suffer. "What did language do ? She did 
not resist change ? This she never does. She allowed 
new laws to enter, so that the inevitable changes might 
be kept under control. A third group of words was 
formed out of contributions from the other two. By 
the ancient poetry we learn that 3,000 years ago the 
words that could rhyme with each other formed three 
groups, which did not encroach on each other's limits. 
The new group was mainly composed of what is now 
called the Shang sheng tone class or second tone. The 
third, or K'ii sheng, was subsequently formed. The 
numerals were then pronounced yit, ni, sam, sat, ngo, 
lok, sit, pat, ku, zhip. Of these, sam, " three," was in 
the long tone, now become the first tone ; ngo, " five," 
and ku, " nine," in the new, or second tone ; ni, " two," 
doubtful; and the rest in the short tone. Of the ^.ye 
elements, kim, " metal," was first, mok, " wood," last, 
and shi, " water," ka, " fire," t'o, " earth," all in the 
newly-formed tone class. 

Fifteen hundred years passed away, and the Hindoo 
Buddhists were in China teaching the religion and 
sciences of India. The Chinese had never thought 
about the distinction between tones and letters, and 
when Bengal and Panjab pandits told them that 
sound was capable of analysis, and that tones must 
be distinguished from vowels and consonants, they 
listened incredulously. But the claims of the alpha- 



GROWTH OF THE TONE SYSTEM. 85 

betical analysis were gradually allowed, and emperors 
appointed commissions to settle the sounds and con- 
struct dictionaries. Imperial pride condescended to 
learn the tone distinctions in a flattering sentence 
constructed by a courtier, which exemplified them in 
their order. 5c *3R S © ^ n ^ shing chit, " Heaven's 
son is holy and wise." 

The passage of 1,500 years had seen a new tone 
formed, the K'ii sheng. It consists of contributions 
from the second and fourth. Poetry at this time was 
made according to new laws. Not only the rhyming 
words were brought into subjection to the tones in 
groups of four ; but all the words of each line were 
made to conform to a complex harmonic scale, in the 
construction of which the tones formed the chief 
element. 

Another 1,500 years has passed away, and we now 
find that still greater changes have taken place than 
in the preceding period. The first tone class has been 
split in two. The old sonant initials have been ex- 
pelled, and their place supplied by surds and aspirates. 
The words of the fourth tone class, after losing all their 
final letters, have been distributed among the other 
classes, and the Chinese modern language has become 
more changed from the old type than any member of 
the monosyllabic family. 1 

1 For a detailed account of these changes, see Mandarin Grammar, 
Part I. The principal step I have made in advance in the Chinese part 



86 



There have been three great periods of 1,500 years 
each. The first saw the earliest formation of the surd 
and aspirate series, with that of a triple tone system. 
The second witnessed an extensive dropping of the 
final letters k, t, p t and ng, and the growth of the tone 
system ending in the quadruple formation of the 
» dictionaries. The third period, perhaps the most 
revolutionary of all, saw the sonant initials, and the 
finals Jc, t, p, m, for ever dismissed, one of the primeval 
tone groups completely broken up, and the syllabic 
spelling of the Hindoo Buddhists thrown into chaotic 
confusion. 

All this may be taken as proof of the primitive 
character of the Chinese language. Had it inherited 
from the Turanian, Indo-European, or Semitic families, 
any of their peculiar tendencies to polysyllabic forma- 
tion, it would have had, historically, a very different 
development. But being itself of the first descent 
from the primeval mother of human speech, we can 
trace in it no later elements. Not the Egyptian nor 
the Hebrew nor the Sanscrit can compare with the 
Chinese in antiquity of type. They all have a more 
complex syllabary, and introduce appendages to the 
roots, which constitute an evidence of the comparative 
recency of their formation. 

of the investigation since the publication of that work, has been in the 
detection of the law by which the surd series has been regularly formed 
from the sonants, as illustrated above. 



SYNTAX. 87 

If with these views alone before me, I should be 
inclined greatly to lengthen Chinese chronology; but 
the comparison of the ancient civilizations of China 
and Western Asia compels me to reduce the epoch 
of the commencement of Chinese isolation to very 
nearly that of accepted history. The similarity 
between old Chinese life and that depicted in the . 
Book of Genesis is so striking and so multiform, 
that it seems impossible to date the eastern migration 
of the Chinese earlier than a few centuries, at the most 
ten, before the time of Abraham. 

The laws of position in Chinese sentences are the 
same with those already given as belonging to the 
natural and primeval speech of man. The actor is 
mentioned before the action, and the verb before its 
object. The adjective precedes the substantive, and 
the specific noun the genus to which it belongs. 
The adverb precedes the verb, and the attribute the 
substance to which it is attached. The subject is 
first mentioned, then the copula, and lastly the pre- 
dicate. The only peculiarity to be here mentioned 
as not of natural and primeval growth is, that locative 
auxiliaries are made suffixes and not prefixes. " In a 
city," is more natural than " city in." The Chinese, 
however, prefer in their ancient and modern language 
to say the latter. Our phrase, "the world," is with 
them 5c T " heaven under." These locative post- 
positions are best explained as substantives. Hia is 



88 



" that which is below." The original force of such 
words was verbal. " To go down," is also Ma. As 
in the Turanian languages, so in Chinese, the verb 
became strongly substantival. Act became action. It 
is indeed the same in English. " Act," is a verb 
and a noun, and the mind learns to abstract the act 
from the actor, and look at it by itself. It is then 
spoken of as any other noun. Thus, c'heng net is 
translated " the city's interior " or " in the city." The 
word nei is nip, to " enter," the p being dropped. The 
modern form is ju. That which is entered is the 
interior. The language forming faculty performs the 
necessary transformation, and applies the name of the 
act enter to the inside of a city or house. It then 
becomes a locative suffix. 

All Chinese suffixes of this sort were originally 
verbs. So the other locatives shang, " above," hia, 
" below," t'sien, "before," heu, "behind," etc., were all 
verbs originally. As such their places would, before 
they assumed the locative character, be before their 
nouns. 

The germ of the Turanian and Indo-European sys- 
tem of declension appears here for the first time. 
What the Chinese did for the locative, the ancient 
communities, who founded those types of language, 
proceeded to do for the instrumental, ablative, and 
dative cases. All the case suffixes, whether locative, 
instrumental, or dative, were simply verbs robbed of 



ORIGIN OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 89 

their activity and placed after nouns as signs of 
locality, direction, instrumentality, and so on, in order 
to facilitate the more speedy and convenient allocation 
of the objects of thought in the categories of space 
and time. 

The Chinese has also a sort of possessive case, the 
history of which is simple. In the earliest Chinese 
the possessive case was included in the law by which 
species precedes genus, subject precedes attribute, and 
the particular notion goes before the general notion. 
" Man's body " was jen shen. Soon one of the demon- 
stratives, ti, was used as a connective — \ ;£ B E3 
Nin ti ngi.mok, "men's ears and eyes." There was 
originally no possessive force in this connective, an- 
ciently ;£ ti, now £$ ti. The possessive force was 
conveyed in the order of the words, in accordance with 
what may be regarded as a law in the primeval lan- 
guage from which the Chinese was derived. A hiatus 
is felt in the modern language if Wo tfhai sh'i, "my 
duties," is said for Wo ti c'hai sh'i. The Tibetian would 
perceive a similar hiatus. The remedy is found in the 
introduction of the particle ti. In the Shanghai dialect 
the particle used to fill the hiatus is ko. In Tibetan ki 
is employed. In Fu kien province, as in the Amoy 
dialect, e is the word. In all these cases the possessive 
force would be acquired subsequently. The origin of 
the possessive was simply a want felt, to make the 
sentence square, a rhythmical feeling which is not 



90 



contented until the laws of proportion are obeyed in 
language. It is the same feeling which prompts us to 
say " a long and happy reign," rather than " a happy 
and long reign," and which lies at the foundation of 
prosody. 

The order of verbs, when they represent two or more 
consecutive actions, is in Chinese that of time. This 
principle would be adopted from the primeval type. 
Thus, primeval man would say without any inversion, 
" Sit down eat food," in the language of command or 
of narration. The word down would be a verb, and 
thus three verbs would stand in juxtaposition before 
the solitary substantive food. The modern Chinese 
says Tso Ma c'Mfan, "sit down eat rice." The Semites 
were the first to introduce a conjunction and, as in 
Gren. xviii. 2, " And he lifted up eyes his, and saw, and 
behold three men standing by him, and [he] saw and 
ran to meet them." The words lifted, saw, behold, ran, 

are all introduced by and. The prepositions "by," 7^ 

ngal, and 7 le, "to," are originally verbs, the one 

meaning " to ascend," and the other " motion towards." 
The whole sentence thus consists of nouns, pronouns, 
and verbs, and the order in which the verbs stand is 
that of the time in which the actions symbolized by 
them took place. Not one of them is put out of its 
natural position. 

The order of time is the basis of the position of 



POSITION OF VERBS. 91 

verbs in all languages. But it was subject to frequent 
inversion in the Hebrew, as in Gen. xx. 6, " And said, 
Sarah, laugh made to me God," for " Sarah said, God 
has made me laugh." The dative participle le before 
me is redundant. The verb laugh is placed before the 
verb make, and both stand before their nominatives. 

Such inversions do not appear in the Chinese lan- 
guage, which is unimaginative. The popular instinct 
is satisfied when it describes events in the order in 
which they took place, and could take no pleasure in 
those bold transpositions which delighted the Semite 
race. 



CHAPTER VI. 



The Semitic System Older than the Turanian ; Younger than 
the Chinese. — Triliteral Koots.— Insertions. — Suffixes. — 
Prefixes. — Growth of Inflexions. — Sex. — Personifications. 
— Syntax. — The Yerb placed First. — Post-position of Adjec- 
tive and of Genitive. — Post-position of Genitive borrowed by 
European Languages. — Semitic Relative and European Rela- 
tive COMPARED WITH THE CHINESE AND TURANIAN EQUIVALENT. 



There is no good reason to doubt the correctness 
of those views by which Gesenius and other Semitic 
philologists were led to seek affinities between the 
Indo-European system and that which formed the 
more peculiar object of their researches. The number 
of common roots found in these two systems is indeed 
very great. Thus, among the numerals, Shad, " one," 
in Chaldee seems to agree with the Greek heis, eh, 
" one," the Latin solus, and with the third among the 
common Chinese roots tan, yid, kit, all meaning " alone," 
or " one." The Chaldee shete, " two," becomes in the 
ordinal for thinyana, " second." The original dental 
initial t resumes its place instead of the favourite 
Hebrew sibilant sh, and points to an old connexion 
with duo. The very law which frequently changed t 



THE SEMITIC FAMILY OLDER THAN THE TURANIAN. 93 

and d to sh or z or ts in Hebrew, prevailed in the 
Greek when tu, "thou," became cru, and still operates 
in German when tide becomes zeit. Where there are 
roots in common, there will also be found laws of 
change in common. But this is anticipating. Our 
task of comparison must for the present be rather 
limited to the linguistic systems of Eastern Asia. 

The Semitic family has older features than the 
Turanian, for in the progress towards a polysyllabic 
formation it has not gone far beyond the dissyllabic 
root. In the Turanian languages, words of four or 
five syllables are not uncommon. Another mark of 
superior antiquity in the Semitic system is the absence 
of case suffixes in the nouns and of temporal and 
model suffixes in the verbs. The earliest Semites bent 
their energy, unconsciously but surely, to the formation 
of a system of speech in which as much as possible 
should be done by prefixes, while the Turanians 
directed their language-forming power to the develop- 
ment of suffixes. Now, since the Semites never pre- 
fixed more than one syllable, while the Turanian 
instinct, by the creation of the polysyllabic suffix, has 
caused the upgrowth of immense lingual variety in the 
speech of more than half the area of Europe and Asia, 
the Semitic type must be regarded as less developed, 
and therefore more primitive, than the Turanian. 

When it is remembered that Mongol, Greek, and 
Sanscrit case suffixes are metamorphosed pronouns and 



94 



verbs put after instead of before their nouns, it must 
be admitted that the language- systems to which they 
belong are of recent origin. But where, as in Semitic 
speech it happens, the verb, which is required to do 
the duty of a case particle, becomes a preposition, and 
stands before its noun, we feel ourselves to be in the 
midst of speakers who retain closely the tradition of 
the earth's primeval language. No one will object 
to the statement that the Arabs have more primeval 
characteristics than the Grreeks. Their life, their 
customs, and their modes of thinking, bear the stamp 
of immense antiquity; and as is their life so is their 
language. Every language carries on it the impress 
of the genius of the people that formed it. If the 
Chinese type is the most conservative among families 
of languages, the Semitic comes next to it. It never 
went far beyond the primitive model transmitted by 
" the earth's gray fathers." 

The date of the formation of the Semitic type being 
thus shown to be older than that of the Aryan and 
Turanian families, it must now be proved that it is 
more recent than the Chinese, and that its origination 
constitutes the second great step in the progress of 
language. 

The most obvious point of contrast is in the triliteral 
roots. The ancient Chinese said for " happiness," pok, 
a root which has the connected meanings, " rich " and 
" vast." In Sanscrit we find bhaga, " good fortune," 



TRILITERAL ROOTS DERIVED FROM MONOSYLLABLES. 95 

in Latin fortuna, in Greek ttXovtos, "rich," in Per- 
sian bakht, " rich," in Mongol boyin, " happiness," 
in Russian bogatie, "rich." The confusion between 
riches and happiness is easily accounted for. Among 
what people is it not common to make wealth the 
measure of happiness? In Hebrew the root occurs 
in barachi "to bless." Here we have a triliteral root 
brk. The vowels were not written by the early Phoeni- 
cians and Hebrews. We have, therefore, only the 
consonants to consider. An r has been inserted. There 
is in this nothing uncommon. The difference of an 
inserted r in the English word world as compared 
with the German Welt, does not render doubtful the \/ 
identification of these words. 

There is a root very widely spread in most languages. 
It is our English verb to cut. It is in Chinese kat 
gi], Latin ccedo, Mongol hadomoi, Japanese katana, 
" a sword," Tamul katti, " a knife." Gesenius says * 
that the syllable gad has in Hebrew the notion of 
cutting in common with gaz, as in gazaz, from which 
it is derived by the loss of the sibilant ; but on the 
other hand it may be traced still farther to the harder 
syllables Kats, Kash, Kas, Hhats, Hhaz, and, the sibi- 
lant disappearing, Kat, Kad, Hhat, Hhad. All these 
syllables have the sense of cutting. They appear as 
roots in the forms Gazaz, Katsats, Hhatsats, Kadad, 
Hhadad. To these may be added Gadah and Gadang 

1 Lexicon Manuale, under Gadad. 



96 china's place in philology. 

"When this great philologist proceeded to compare 

with the large family of words here cited the Latin 

ccedo and scindo, the Greek <r^i§a>, the Persian chidan 

and khudan, and the English cut, it is evident that he 

regarded the triliteral form as the formal root, and the 

biliteral as the real. He was manifestly right in this, 

as the examples now given from the eastern Asiatic 

languages sufficiently show. But there can be but 

little doubt that he was wrong in assuming the priority 

of the s final to the t, and of the k initial to the g. 1 

The Chinese syllabary shows that a sibilant final to a 

root syllable is an innovation, and the history of the 

changes of letters in that language renders it probable 

that the whole surd series is derived from the sonant. 

Hence we learn that the root gad changed its initial to 

the strong aspirate Hh or to the pure surd letter k. 

The final d became t or s or sh or ts. We need not be 

surprised if we often meet with an interchange between 

the dental t and the sibilant s. This may be illustrated 

by the second personal pronoun in t. This form for 

the second person does not occur in any families but 

the Semitic, the Indo-European, and the Tartar branch 

of the Turanian. It is firmly fixed in all these. The 

Mongols take the s form, ch'i or Psi, as do the Manchus 

when they say si, and the Turks when they say sen. 

The Greek av has followed them. The Sanscrit tuam, 

1 Under the word D^&? shenayim, "two," Gesenius states that the 
primary form seems to be *0n, thus admitting the priority of the t sound. 



PREFIX SIBILANTS. 97 

Persian tu and to, Latin ft*, 'German du, English thou, 
agree with the Hebrew atta, Arabic ant, and Egyptian 
entok in preferring t. 

We also learn that the first speakers of* the Semitic 
languages, in forcing the roots to assume a triliteral 
form, added as a third letter the consonants ng and h, 
or doubled the final letter when it happened to be d, ts, 
or %. There were similar laws of change attendant on 
the other letters of the Semitic alphabet where they 
occur. The second k, for instance, was added in 
mathaq, " was sweet," connected with the Sanscrit 
madhu, "honey." 

I now give examples to show that the phenomenon 
of a sibilant prefix, so common in the Sanscrit, and in 
the European languages, is also a favourite way of 
modifying the sound of a root among the Semites. 
The word saphak, "strike," is used 1 in the causative 
form in the sense of " strike a covenant," which is in 
Latin pepigit foedus, or in the completed form pactum. 
In Chinese p'ak is " to strike," and bang, in the modern 
form pHng, is a " proof," " evidence." In the verb 
saphak, " to strike," " to punish," there is a variation 
in the sibilant initial, samech being used for sin. The 
Hebrews also said for to " cleave," to " open," bakang, 
bakar, which meanings are expressed in Chinese by 
pHk. May it not be regarded as probable that 5 was 
prefixed to the biliteral root in p, k, just as we say 
1 Gesenius, Lex. Man. in voc. Saphek. 

7 



98 



smelt, and the Germans schmelzen, for to melt ? If so, 
then tsakhaq, "laugh," may be derived from kak, the 
root syllable of cachination, the German Kichern, and 
the Greek KayaCp. So shakab, "recline/' from kub, 
the root of cubo, and kvtttco, Mongol hebt'emoi, " lie 
down." So again, sagab, "to be high," from gab in 
gibeah, " a hill," and gabahh, " to be high." The word 
sabar, " to hope," derived from bar, a root meaning 
"to pierce," "scrutinize," as in the preposition per, 
and the verbs pierce, bore, may be compared with the 
Latin spero, " to hope." Tsadik, " just," will then be 
the same with the Greek S&ccuos and the Latin rectus, 
and agrees still more nearly with our own straight. 

By these and similar processes the primitive biliteral 
roots have become triliteral, and it was thus that the 
Semites pointed out the path of change to the more 
youthful Indo-Europeans. Finding among the two 
families similar laws of change, we assign to the 
Semitic system, on account of its more simple syllabary, 
a higher antiquity than to the Indo-European ; and so, 
when we compare the Semitic system with the Chinese, 
we must call the Chinese the older, because its roots 
are in a more rudimentary and primitive form. 

The Chinese ch'i, " straight," is in the oldest ascer- 
tainable pronunciation dik. The Tamul- speaking people 
say takuti, and the Mongols t'egshi. The Greeks used 
the root dik. The Latins changed it to rek. The 
English and Arabs prefixed s, and the Hebrews ts. 



EGYPTIAN SYLLABLE-EXAMPLES. 



99 



That the Hamitic and Semitic languages were closely 
connected is now generally admitted. Egyptian words 
show signs of a more modern form than corresponding 
Chinese words. I select a few examples 1 from "Egypt's 
Place in Universal History." 



g 

CHINESE 
OLD. 


NEW. 


MEANING. 


EGYPTIAN. 


mo 


ma 


hemp 


hma 


mo 


wu 


is not 


m or am 


pui 
ban 


fei 
p'an 


fly 

to sin, offend 


pai, pui 
ban 


put 
bak 
kit 
pak 


pu 
pe 
hi 
pei 


not 
white 
rejoice 
carry 


bu 
ubex 
haa 
fa, fai 



The tendency to assume a dissyllabic form is manifest 
in these words. The language of Ancient Egypt be- 
longs to a newer formation than the Chinese. 

When the structure of the Hebrew conjugations, the 
syllabic suffixes to express the dual and plural, and 
the pronominal suffixes to nouns, are examined, the 
advance of the Semitic system from the primeval 
monosyllabism towards the polysyllabic form becomes 
still more clear. For example, n is prefixed to make a 
passive and kith to form a middle voice. The prefix 
h makes the verb causative, as does the insertion of 



1 These examples have been kindly corrected for me by a distinguished 
Egyptologist. * 



100 

go and gol in Mongol. The root of the verb to cause 
is in Chinese ho or kok, and this, as h grows out of h, 
may be the parent of both these forms. The root thus 
becomes lengthened into four or five letters and two or 
three syllables. 

The extensive use of I, r, s, and ts, as finals to the 
monosyllabic or biliteral root is another mark of more 
recent formation. These peculiar finals, entirely un- 
known in the ancient Chinese vocabulary, occur abun- 
dantly in the Hebrew, Turanian, and Indo-European 
syllabaries. The Chinese has I, but not r, in its 
alphabet, and the Japanese r, but not /. In modern 
Chinese r is struggling for recognition. In Mongol 
and Tamil I and r are fully developed, as in the 
Semitic and European systems. 1 They occur either as 
initials or as finals. The same is true of the sibilants 
s, ts, and sh. To the Semitic stock, therefore, should 
be assigned the honour of developing the syllabary of 
human speech in this direction. It was this system 
that first distinguished between I and r as initials, and 
added them, with s, sh, z, ts, to the list of final con- 
sonants. From them the Turanians took them during 
their ancient residence in South-western Asia, but 
subsequently to the time when they sent away the 
Japanese offshoot, and left it to pursue an independent 
existence in the far east of Asia ; for the inhabitants 
of that island- empire are very deficient in this part of 
1 Not as initials in Tamil. 



GENDER. 101 

their syllabary, and their language seems to be the 
oldest of the three Turanian systems. 

The vowels being represented by three letters in the 
earliest Semitic (that is, the Phoenician) alphabet, it is 
probable that when the ancestors of the Semites left 
the primeval stem of language, the vowels a, i, u, 
were sufficient for the needs of human speech at that 
time. 

Thus much for the Semitic syllabary. Another 
mark of advance to be now noted is the growth of the 
Semitic inflexions. Imagination was always powerful 
among the men of this race. It gave to the Old 
Testament in its poetical portions their metaphorical 
imagery, brilliant description, and rapid movement. 
This same gift was their inheritance long before the 
days of the prophets, at an earlier time during the 
formation of their languages. "We see its effects in 
the attribution of sex to the lifeless objects of nature. 
Cedar, gem, bunch of grapes, death, enemy, booh, were 
masculine. Pillar, egg, castle, intellect, year, sleep, 
were feminine. Some words, such as earth, fire, were 
masculine or feminine. The Chinese and Turanian 
languages know nothing of these distinctions, and 
hence we infer that this characteristic of the Sanscrit, 
Greek, and Latin tongues has been derived from the 
influence of the earlier Semitic type. The feminine 
was marked frequently by a special suflix, as by h, or 
th in Hebrew, and by a in Greek and Latin. 



102 



Among the personal pronouns, ani, the first, was the 
common property of the Hebrew man and woman, but 
in the second person a distinction commenced, and was 
also maintained in the third. In the verb also, when 
woman or any feminine objects were spoken to or 
spoken of, a special suffix was used. But in this the 
Indo-European system did not follow the Semitic ex- 
ample, preferring to express the distinctions of person 
by the pronominal suffixes, without giving attention 
to sex. The Semitic languages gain little by this 
laborious system of conjugating according to gender, 
and it has, therefore, nearly lost its place in language. 
The predisposition of the human mind for poetical and 
rhythmical expression leads to the introduction into 
language of many laws, which, on account of their 
burdensome nature, must ultimately be given up, and 
cannot be expected to continue their existence in newly 
formed linguistic families. To such laws the Semitic 
conjugation by gender must be referred. The dis- 
tinction of gender in pronouns has lived for a longer 
period, having lasted from the commencement of the 
Semitic age down to the modern English, the newest 
and freest form of Indo-European speech, which, while 
rejecting the distinction of gender in inanimate objects, 
has retained it in the personal pronouns he, she, it. 

One of the most striking phenomena in Semitic 
speech, the result, like the genders of nouns, of bold- 
ness in imagination, is the inversion noticeable in the 



POST- POSITION OF THE NOMINATIVE. 103 

order of words. In the first verse of Genesis we read 
Breshith bara Elohim eth hashshamayim ve eth ha-aretz. 
" In the beginning created God the heavens and the 
earth." Why is the verb placed before its nominative ? 
It is in consequence of a law of inversion which it 
pleased the imaginative faculty to introduce. It was 
rendered possible by the previous formation of an 
objective case. The prefix eth being used to mark 
the object of the verb's action, there can be no con- 
fusion between the nominative and accusative, and it 
is, therefore, at the option of the speaker to place the 
actor before or after the verb, as he pleases. Guided 
by a poetic instinct, the Semite usually preferred to 
mention the verb before the actor. In so doing he 
departed from the old primeval law of human speech, 
still remaining in the Chinese and Turanian systems, 
and allowed the imagination to triumph over the logical 
faculty, according to which the nominative, as the first 
in nature and time, precedes its verb. 

Another instance of the effect of inversion is seen 
in examples where the verb stands first, the nomina- 
tive comes last, and the object is between them. Ki 
Yebiaka Yehova, " For shall bring thee Jehovah," 
instead of, "For Jehovah shall bring thee." This order 
is rendered possible by the object ka, " thee," the pro- 
nominal suffix to the verb, being always accusative, so 
that there can be no confusion between actor and 
object. 



104 



The laws by which the adjective follows the substan- 
tive, and the demonstrative pronoun its noun, are also 
caused by this tendency to inversion. The article 
came into existence opportunely to allow of this being 
conveniently done. The sentence, " This good land," 
is in Hebrew, Ha-aretz hattobah hazzoth. Ha, the 
definite article, is used three times. Tobah, "good/' 
follows aretz, " the earth," and zoth, " this," comes last. 
This law also meets us in the Malay and Polynesian 
languages, where, however, the article is wanting. 

A more important inversion perhaps than the pre- 
ceding is what may be called the post-position of the 
genitive, as in the Arabic zill Allah, " the shadow of 
Allah." The natural order is " Allah's shadow," as in 
all the languages east of Persia (including the Sanscrit), 
excepting the East Himalaic, Malay, and Polynesian 
systems. Our primeval ancestors, there can be little 
doubt, spoke of the possessor first, and then what he 
possessed. The Semitic imagination first seized the 
name of the object possessed and then that of the 
possessor. This caused what is called the "construct 
state." The first word had its vowel shortened, and 
the plural termination appeared in a clipped form. 
Thus, DH^T devarim, became ^l^* 7 ! divre, in the phrase 
divre hangam DJ7M H^l " words of the people." 

When in Greek we find the post-position of the 
genitive well established, as in aval; av&pwv, "king of 
men," and also remember the contiguity of the Greek 



POST-POSITION OF THE GENITIVE. 105 

and Semitic areas and the ancient intermixing of the 
Phoenicians with the Hellenic race, it seems quite a 
natural supposition that the Greeks derived it from the 
Semites. The near neighbourhood of the Assyrian 
empire and civilization would aid powerfully in the 
introduction into the Greek language of this and other 
Semite idioms. The same strong and long-continued 
Semite influence caused its entrance into the Persian as 
in Mushk-i Khoten, " musk of Khoten." 

In English the two modes of arrangement are both 
in use, and this, as in other European tongues, adds 
much to the freedom, fluency, and variety which cha- 
racterize modern speech. Thus the Shorter Catechism 
commences, " What is the chief end of man ? " and 
says in the answer, " Man's chief end is to glorify God, 
and enjoy him for ever." If there had been any 
difference in intelligibility or propriety of use between 
" man's chief end," and the " chief end of man," a 
preference would have been shown here for one of 
these modes of speaking, to the exclusion of the other. 
In the English of the nineteenth century there are 
still no certain signs indicating that the Semitic 
mode of speech is coming near the end of its reign; 
and yet it is possible that the post-position of the 
genitive may pass into an archaism after no very long 
time. The Greeks said wo? Geov, for " Son of God." 
The Latins rather preferred to say Dei filius. The 
Sanscrit-speaking Arians could not transpose their 



106 



genitive, thus showing that they were under strong 
Turanian influence, and showed very little sign of 
Semite connexion. 

Of the remarkable inversion of order, which in the 
Turanian and Indo-European families led to the system 
of case suffixes, there is scarcely any trace in the 
Hebrew, except in the suffix ah, expressing motion 
towards a place. But we do not know what this ah 
was. In the case suffixes of the Sanscrit and Greek 
we find, or think we ought to find, metamorphosed 
demonstratives placed after their nouns. Perhaps we 
should rather say verbs metamorphosed. Looking for 
an old verbal equivalent to this suffix, we find the 
Chinese hiang |fij hung, kung, "towards." 

One of the greatest improvements in language due 
to the influence of the Semitic mind is the introduction 
of the relative pronoun. This pronoun is originally 
formed from the interrogative or demonstrative. In 
English the demonstrative that has acquired a relative 
force, and so it may be said of the interrogative who. 

In Hebrew, the relative pronoun *lB?tf asher, is not 
so easily accounted for. We find in Chinese an inter- 
rogative zhok, "who?" which appears in the modern 
form as shut, after dropping its final and changing its 
zh to sh, "We also have si, " this," and zhi, " this," 
both old words; shat, "what?" a dialect word; and 
shen, "what," or, in an older form, zhim, a Mandarin 
word. Gesenius prefers to derive asher from the 



ORIGIN OF THE RELATIVE. 107 

primitive demonstrative in s, in Sanscrit sa, sas, English 
so, she, German sie, and finds the final r in our words 
there, der, er, etc. The old word ^f si, "this/' and 
its equivalent jfc t'si, " this," show that the ancient 
Chinese had the same sibilant demonstrative. But the 
Hebrew sh has in some words the value t in cognate 

dialects. Thus, U$ sham, "there," was tarn in Chaldee, 

Latin turn. Our word asher may therefore be a dis- 
guised form of the demonstrative in d, used in so many- 
languages and dialects, Indo-European and Chinese. 
Thus we have in old Chinese di, " this," and the same 
in Tibetan, equivalent to the Grerman der, die, das, and 
the English this and that. In Chaldee we find da min 
da, " this from that," reminding us of the Tibetan di, 
"this," and Malay dia, "he." We also meet with di 
in Chaldee for " who," " which," " that," and as a sign 
to connect a genitive with its prefixed nominative. 

The relative is a device for continuing a description 
without coming to a full stop, and it allows the speaker 
to proceed without being compelled to commence again 
with a repetition of the noun. Hence the demon- 
strative pronoun is taken for this service as the repre- 
sentative of the noun, and as most suited to undergo 
the change in meaning which is required by its new 
position. The Hebrews often omitted the relative, an 
indication that in the early stage their language was 

without it. V? $*-73 kol yesh lo, " all was his," that 



108 



is, "all that was his." They afterwards introduced 
asher to fill the gap, and make the sentence entirely 
coherent. The device was successful. They used for 
this object an obsolete demonstrative, asher, not needed 
for any other purpose. 

When the Semites introduced the relative, it was in 
accordance with the genius of their language, which 
seizes on the central idea and then describes it in 
detail. The second verse of the second chapter of 
Genesis reads, if translated according to the Hebrew 
order, " And finished Gfod on day the seventh work his 
which he did, and he rested on day the seventh from 
all work his which he did." The emphatic verbs finish 
and rest stand first. Bay precedes its adjective, seventh. 
Work precedes the relative clause describing it. The 
action if a verb and the nominative if a noun must 
in all cases stand out in their clear individuality first. 
Then the particulars follow, whether expressed by 
adjectives, by pronouns, or by the relative clause. 
Such was the mode of constructing sentences which 
was most agreeable to the Semitic imagination. The 
eastern Asiatic languages have been content to be 
guided by the logical faculty. 

The old Chinese would say, "Seventh day, God's 
work being completed, then he rested." 1 Here the 

1 & B 1 * I t S I ,1 T ' sit nit zhiun 9 U kong 
tsiun nai kH sik, " Seventh day Supreme Ruler work completed then 



SEMITIC AND CHINESE RELATIVE COMPARED. 109 

time is put first, because it is (viewed grammatically) a 
subordinate circumstance. The nominative stands first 
because the actor in the order of nature exists before 
the act. The verbs completed and rested take the order 
of time, and one nominative, God, serves for both. The 
order of nature allows of brief description. If this 
order is broken in upon, the penalty must be paid in 
tautologies and circumlocution. 

The contents of every relative clause are capable of 
being inserted as a subordinate clause in the principal 
sentence under the control of the nominative to that 
sentence. This insertion is what the Chinese make use 
of instead of a relative clause. 

The Mongol reads " God," uberon uileduksen idled, 
" self-done work," jirgogan edure t'egusgeged, " sixth 
day being finished/' dolodogar edure, " on the seventh 
day," uberon uileduksen uiles eche, " self-done work 
from," amorabai, "rested." 1 Here the principal verb, 
rested, stands last, according to the invariable law of 
the Turanian languages. The nominative, God, stands 
first, ruling the subordinate and the principal clause. 
This is the fixed order of clauses in Chinese and in the 
Turanian system. What in Hebrew would be a relative 
clause is here constructed in immediate connexion with 



stopped rested." From Translation of the Scriptures by Medhurst and 
others into Chinese. 

1 From Ihe Translation of the Scriptures into Mongolian, by Messrs. 
Swan and Stallybrass. 



110 



the nominative by means of the possessive suffix 
attached to the reflexive pronoun self. 

The influence of Semite speech appears to have been 
less on Sanscrit than on the other Indo-European 
tongues. The post-position of the genitive is entirely 
foreign to Indian grammar, and it seems to make but 
sparing use of the relative. The Hindoos did not 
commonly by its means construct a new subordinate 
clause after the principal sentence. They placed it as 
a Chinese or Mongol would do in a clause by itself 
before the chief sentence. They were fond of antithesis, 
and introduced a demonstrative he to correspond 
with the relative. In Williams' Sanscrit Grammar, 
the following example is given. " What you have 
promised, that abide by." Tat pratijndtam tat pdlaya. 

The Chinese would say in their modern language, 
tsen mo shwo, tsen mo king, "how speak/' "how do," 
meaning, " as you have spoken so do." Here, tsen mo 
is an interrogative, "how ?" The Sanscrit yad, yali, is 
simply an old disused interrogative " who ?" " what ?" 
employed to perform the simpler duties of the relative 
according to the limited Hindoo conception of them. 
It is to the European languages that we must look for 
the examples of the full development of the relative, as 
a main help to the attainment of that fluency in narra- 
tive and accuracy in description for which they are 
distinguished. . 



CHAPTER YII. 
i 

The Himalaic Languages Younger than the Chinese; Older than 
the tjuranian. — eastern hlmalaic' branch.— siamese phonal 
System. — Cochin-Chinese Tones. — Chinese Natural Tones. — 
Vocabulary. — Syntax. — Western Himalaic Branch. — Tibetan 
Phonal System. — Tibetan and Hebrew Common Words. — Tibe- 
tan Tones. — Post-Position op Case Particles. — Derivatives. — 
Tibetan Verb. — Antiquity of the Tibetan Type. 

On approaching the Himalaic languages on the 
western side, we find ourselves in contact with a system 
of case suffixes for the first time. For these we look in 
vain in the Semitic family, and in Chinese they are 
limited to the locative case. The Tibetan race connects 
itself by monosyllabic structure and tones, as well as 
by a large number of identical words, with the Chinese. 
But by its system of case particles it is seen to approach 
to the Tartar and Indian languages. The Tibetan 
belongs to a system younger than the Chinese, because 
it places the substantive before the adjective, and the 
verb at the end of the sentence. In the same way it 
may be shown to be older than the Turanian family, 
because, though it strongly resembles that system in 
placing the case particles after their noun's, and the 
verbs at the end of the sentence, yet its monosyllabic 
character and system of tonic pronunciation cause it 
to approximate to the Chinese. 



112 



The existence of the case suffixes in the Tibetan 
language, and the circumstance that the verb is there 
uniformly found at the end of the sentence, are suffi- 
cient to justify us in ascribing to the Himalaic family 
to which it belongs a later origin than to the Semitic. 
The third great step in the development of human 
language was made, therefore, in the formation of this 
family. 

At the same time it must be kept in view that the 
Eastern and "Western Himalaic languages are diverse 
in several important respects. The Cochin- Chinese 
and Siamese languages have an order like and yet not 
like the Chinese in the combination of the prepositions 
with the nouns. All the case auxiliaries are prefixed, 
whether locative, instrumental, dative, or ablative. In 
the Chinese the locative auxiliaries follow, and the rest 
precede their nouns. In the Tibetan they are all 
suffixes. The Eastern and "Western branches of the 
Himalaic family thus appear to differ in character very 
materially, and a division is rendered inevitable. Yet 
their common tonic pronunciation, and their advance 
beyond the Chinese in the extended capacity of their 
syllabaries, may still be regarded as furnishing sufficient 
ground for retaining them in connexion as branches of 
one family. 

In the Cochin- Chinese and Siamese languages, which 
are the chief members of the Eastern Himalaic branch, 
an alphabetic series and syllabary exist, much re- 



SIAMESE PHONAL SYSTEM. 113 

sembling the Chinese. The words are monosyllabic. 
The finals are in Cochin- Chinese, besides the vowels, 
k, t, p, ng, nh, n, m, and ch. Of these nh is a variation 
from ng and ch from k. An effort has been made to 
throw off some of these finals. We find nhot, " day," 
the Chinese nyit, also spelled ngai, where the t is lost. 
There is a limited use of r and / after the initials b and 
t. Thus, tron, blon, trot, blot, all mean " perfect," 
" whole," and are the same with the Chinese ^ t'siuen, 
formerly pronounced zien and clzien. In exchange for 
dz, dj, ch, ts, the Cochin- Chinese introduced gradually 
the initials tr and bl. They also developed the modern 
letters r and I out of the old I. The Siamese have 
done the same, and have also added /, as the modern 
Chinese have done, to the old alphabetic elements. No 
other member of the Himalaic family has the letter/. 
The area of this letter is also limited among the Tura- 
nian languages to Japan, Manchuria, and Turkestan. 
The Siamese have no sh, but they have, like all the 
members of the Himalaic family, an abundant supply 
of aspirated surds. Thus, k, t, and p, with an aspirate, 
are extremely common. These aspirated mutes exist 
in certain localities in Europe, and constitute a main 
peculiarity in the colloquial Irish pronunciation of the 
English language, but it is only in the speech of 
Eastern Asia that they have been made to take the 
part of distinct letters. From Jones's "Grammatical 
Notices of the Siamese Language," it would appear that 

8 



114 



there lias been no change in the finals : k, d, b, ng, n, m, 
rule undisturbed as the favourite consonants for termin- 
ating all closed syllables. Perhaps d and b, which come 
in place of t and p, are of even greater antiquity than 
these last. They may be the vestiges of an era when 
the surds k, t, p, were still unknown as initials or finals, 
and when in the primeval alphabet, as now in the 
Tartar languages, the aspirates and sonants were the 
only representatives of the triple series known as 
gutturals, dentals, and labials. 

The tones are in the Siamese phonal system closely 
intertwined with the syllabary. The letters are divided 
into three series, high, middle, and low. The aspirates 
k', V, p', s, f, h, c'h, are pronounced in the upper and 
lower series, that is, for example, in a high and low do. 
The surds and sonants k, ch, t, p, d, b, are in the middle 
series, e.g., in the key of sol. The remainder, ng, n, m, 
I, r, 10, y, are in the lower do. 

The words being arranged on a scale with a triple 
pitch, of which the two intervals, taken together, vary 
from, perhaps, a half to an entire octave, the inflexions 
and even-tones, five in number, still remain to be 
applied to them. These consist of a slow even-tone, 
a circumflex, which is a curve of the voice, first down 
and then up, a slow falling, a quick rising, and a slow 
rising inflexion. 1 The English and French interrog- 
ative tone is the same as what is here called the quick 
1 See Grammatica Linguae Tai, by Bishop Pallegoix. 






COCHIN-CHINESE TONES. 



115 



rising inflexion. In the sentence, " What ! not obey 
me?" the tone of what is the quick rising inflexion, 
and that of obey is not unfrequently the slow falling 
circumflex. 

The Cochin- Chinese tones are also arranged on a 
triple pitch, which we may again think of as upper 
do, sol, and lower do, remembering, however, that 
the breadth of the intervals and the general pitch of 
the voice depend on the habit of the individual and 
the state of his feelings. The tones in this language 
are like the Chinese, and are not distributed among 
aspirates and non-aspirates, as are the Siamese and 
Tibetan, but are themselves set in sol, and the lower 
and upper do. 

COCHIN-CHINESE TONES. 1 



NATURAL CHARACTER. 


MUSICAL NOTATION. 


ENGLISH EQUIVALENT. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 
5. 

6. 


quick even 
quick rising 

falling and rising ( cir <™n- 

\ flex 
slow even 
quick falling 

slow falling 


upper do 
sol, si 

sol, fa, la 

sol 
fa, mi 

lower do 


monotone 
interrogative 

satirical circumflex 

monotone 
interrogative 
done of remonstrance 
(tone of decision 



This system differs from the Chinese only in having 
a triple pitch, while the tones of Chinese dialects are, 



1 Prof, des Michels, " Sur les Intonations chez les Annamites." 1869. 



116 



perhaps, usually content with a double key. The 
Chinese, also, often use the other circumflex, namely, 
that which is bent first upward and then downward. 

The Chinese, as having a greater variety of dialects, 
have, of course, a fuller development of tones than the 
sister races can be expected to possess. 

They have the quick and slow even-tone, the quick 
and slow rising inflexion, the quick and slow falling 
inflexion, and the circumflex of two kinds, first rising 
and then falling, or first falling and then rising, and 
each of these in slow or quick time. They may be 
represented by straight and curved lines, thus : — 

CHINESE NATURAL TONES. 

Even stroke quick and slow monotone 

{ DO or n ci tr v°ed e,Straight \ ^ luick and slow falling slide 

{ TTP on S rv°ed C ' StraiSht0r -^' ' " qui* and slow rising slide 

Curve down and up ' ' \ S quick and slow falling circumflex 

Curve up and down , ^ /^ ^\ quick and slow rising circumflex 

Each of these may be placed in a higher or lower 
pitch, and perhaps there may be an intermediate or 
triple pitch in some cases. 1 

Each dialect selects from this set of tones as many as 
it requires. The least number of tones that any dialect 

1 The intervals may be do, mi, sol, or mi, la, do, and for the double 
pitch do, sol, or la, do, which last is the interval in Peking for ordinary 
voices. 



EASTERN HIMALAIC VOCABULARY. 



117 



in China is known to use is four, as the Pekinese ; and 
the greatest nine, as in the Hok lo patois, in Canton 
province. 

The waves of the voice in these inflexions are better 
represented by curved lines than by the musical scale of 
modern Europe, because the sound of the inflexion 
is continuous and not broken up into quavers and 
crotchets. But to convey a correct idea of the vari- 
ation in pitch noticeable in tonic elocution, reference to 
the musical scale is highly useful. 

The vocabulary of the eastern Himalaic languages is 
in many respects like the Chinese. 



English 


fish 


honey 


earth 


clothing mother 


breath 


Chinese 
Cochin-Chinese 
Greek, Latin 


ngud 
ka 


mid 
mot 


da 
dat 

terra 


wei mo 
ao me 
vestis yrf\Tf\p 


k'ui 
k'oi 
halitus 




English | two three 


four 


five 


six fire fowl 


head 


Chinese 
Siamese 


shong sam 
song sam 


si 
si 


ngu 
ha 


lok hwa koi 
hok fai kai 


du 
how 



In Siamese h takes the place of the Chinese I and d. 
The Siamese I corresponds to the Chinese h, as in 
Chinese hit, "blood," Siamese luit ; Chinese hicang, 
" yellow," Siamese leuang ; Chinese hung, " rainbow," 
Siamese lung. The modern Chinese h corresponds to 
an older k, and will bear comparison with our western 



118 china's place in philology. 

cruor, crudelis, gore, clot. 1 So hwang, " yellow," may be 
compared with our crocus. The word for "rainbow," 
hung, is doubtless a variant of hong, " a bow." The ng 
final of Chinese words sometimes corresponds to our 
western m. So here the Persian hemdn and Greek 
/cdfjL7TT(o, " to bend," are derived from the same root. 

The Siamese pronouns ku, " I," meung, " thou," and 
k'ea, "he," may be compared with the Chinese nga, 
"I," the Hainan, Kwangsi, and Kweicheu aboriginal 
word mu, " thou," and the Chinese gi, " he." The 
extension of the second personal pronoun mu over the 
area occupied by the Blue and White Miau of South 
China, the Hainan islanders and the Shan tribes of 
Burmah and Siam, 2 helps materially to connect these 
scattered dialects, stretching from the Gfulf of Siam, 
N. latitude 14°, to Kweicheu in China, K latitude 26°, 
into one system. 

The Western Himalaic languages, including the 
speech of the Lo lo in the Chinese province of 
Kweicheu, the Burmese and the Tibetians, do not 
appear to have this pronoun. They use instead of it 
for our thou, in the Lo lo dialect, kai, and in Tibetan, 
k'yed. 

1 These words all branch from the primeval root kit, "coagulate," 
"join together." Hence our kith, catena, and the Chinese kit, "tie," and 
gin, "near." 

2 See Bishop Bigandet's comparative vocabulary of Shan dialects in 
Logan's Journal of the Indian Archipelago. 



LAWS OF POSITION. 119 

The Siamese, the T'ung tribe in Kwangsi, the 
White Miau in Kweicheu, the Li tribe of Hainan, and 
the Shans, all say for " I " and " my," ku, hau, or k'au. 
These are all merely variations from the widely spread 
root nga common to the Chinese and Tibetians, and 
occurring as aham, ego, ich, in Indo-European languages. 

The tnird personal pronoun k'ia, in Chinese gi, has 
nearly as wide an area. The White Miau of China say 
kwa for "he," the Tibetians ho. The Japanese say 
kono for " this." The Latin is Mc, and the English he. 
As an interrogative, the same root takes the form of 
" quis ?" " quid ?" " who ?" and " what ?" It is also 
extensively used in the Turanian and Semitic lan- 
guages, as in the Mongol k'en, " who ? " and the 
Hebrew hu, "he." 

The laws of position in the Eastern branch of the 
Himalaic family are very peculiar. In all the dialects, 
whether those of the Miau aborigines in South-western 
China, 1 or the Li in Hainan, the Cochin- Chinese or the 
Siamese, the adjective follows the substantive. It is 
the same in the Western branch. The Chinese, Mon- 
gols, Turks, and Hindoos, encircling these languages 
on all sides, place the adjective before the substantive. 
The Malays only form an exception. The Himalayan 
races have not then, in the adoption of this inversion, 

1 My authorities for Miau dialects are the Chinese works Hing i fu chi, 
Kwangsi t'ung chi, and for Hainan a manuscript vocabulary by Robert 
Swinhoe, Esq. 



120 china's place in philology. 

imitated any of their neighbours. Shall we trace this 
law to Semite influence, or attribute it to their own 
independent efforts to effect changes in the primeval 
type ? Perhaps the latter view may be most favourably 
received. But an early connexion with the Semites 
is not unlikely, certainly not impossible. 

On the other hand, the Eastern branch of this family 
is, in regard to the position of the locative case parti- 
cles, older than the oldest of its neighbours. The verbs 
which mark the cases of nouns are all found before 
their nouns, and very curiously we see the same 
principle in operation in the Semitic languages. The 
Tibetians and Tartars belong to more modern migrations, 
and at the very commencement of their independent 
linguistic existence they performed with decision and 
the most thorough success the feat of transferring the 
verb to the close of the sentence. This process in- 
cluded necessarily the post-position of all case particles. 
There can be no doubt that this Turanian idiom is new, 
and the Ultra-Indian idiom old. The geographical 
situation renders this conclusion inevitable. If also it 
be remembered that the tribes called in the oldest of 
the Chinese classics, the San Miau, 3 were the first 
known occupants of the Chinese area, it seems difficult 
to resist the conclusion that the Eastern Himalayan 

1 The reign of Shun, b.c. 2255, in the Shu king, included the pacifica- 
tion of the San Miau, or three aboriginal tribes, among its chief historical 
events. 



EASTERN HIMALAIC SYNTAX. 121 

races are older than the Chinese. For how can it be 
accounted for that the Chinese should have taken the 
first step in the post-position of the case particles, and 
that their southern neighbours should show no trace of 
a similar phenomenon, except on the supposition that 
in the early migrations from the west, the Ultra- 
Indians came first and the Chinese next? Yet they 
continued uncivilized till Buddhist teachers visited 
them from India and covered the peninsula with 
monastic institutions and Hindoo practices and beliefs. 
This was nearly 2,000 years ago. At about the same 
time, the light of Chinese ancient culture penetrated 
also among them, especially in the reign of Han Wu ti, 
B.C. 100. They never originated, like the Hindoos, a 
mighty kosmos of the imagination, nor, like the 
Chinese, a complete practical system of the arts of 
life. The vast Cambodian temples, with their long 
colonnades, now hidden in the glades of unfrequented 
forests, the shining kiosks of modern Bankok, the 
books of prayers written on the palm leaf, the invoca- 
tions to Grautama, and the ascetic and convent life, are 
all Hindoo. The agriculture, the usages of commerce, 
the mode of government, are all Chinese. 

Hence their languages have probably changed more 
than the Chinese. Speech owes its persistence to 
civilization. Ancient words are crystallized in litera- 
ture, even if they are dropped from their place in the 
familiar intercourse of men. Barbarous idioms alter 



122 china's place in philology. 

rapidly. Laws of grammar, words, sounds, meanings,- 
accents, are in perpetual transition. Hence the novel 
aspect of much of the vocabulary of these races. Living 
as separate tribes, the language of each has undergone 
rapid changes. But through all the principles of 
grammatical structure and the outline of the phonal 
system appear to have retained their ancient features. 
The marks of primeval formation are most remarkable, 
and their consanguinity to the Chinese type is as un- 
deniable as is their likeness in lineaments to the 
common mother from which all languages sprang. 

We do not meet with any full representative of the 
Western branch of the Himalayan race till we arrive 
at Tibet and Burmah, and perhaps the Chinese Lo lo. 
The Karens are in a half-way position between the 
two branches. They place the adjective and the 
demonstrative pronoun after the substantive, and the 
case particles before the object, whose relations they 
define. The possessor precedes the object possessed, as 
in all the Eastern Asiatic languages. They have six 
tones and a strong attachment for vowel finals. All 
the consonant finals have been thrown off, except ng. 
Although in vocabulary they have borrowed much 
from the Burmese and Tibetan languages, 1 they cannot 
with these laws of position be rightly classed anywhere 
but ih the Eastern branch. 

What strikes the eye most remarkably in the Tibetan 
1 Logan's Journal. 



TIBETAN PHONAL SYSTEM. 123 

syllabary is the prefixed letters. The early speakers 
of this form of human speech, not having before them 
the idea of terminations, that happy device made use 
of by the founders of the polysyllabic languages, bent 
their strength unconsciously to v add letters at the 
beginnings of the roots. In so doing they remind us 
of the Semite system, which, in the conjugation of the 
verb, prefixes n to make a passive, m to make a parti- 
ciple and an agent, and h to render the verb causative. 
The favourite prefixes of the Tibetans are g> d, b, h, m, 
r, I, s. Csoma de Koros says, they are in modern speech 
seldom heard. Hence this effort to extend the mono- 
syllabic root at its beginning must be regarded as a 
failure. The letters thus ineffectually placed at the 
commencement of the words are k y g, d, 5, m, r, /, s, 
and h. They help to distinguish words having the 
same sound, and thus in the written Tibetan they 
serve a useful purpose. Two letters are also added 
occasionally at the end of the root, namely, s and h. 
Csoma de Koros says, mi-mams is pronounced as it is 
written, but when the r is not preceded by a word in 
close combination it is silent. When these prefixes and 
suffixes are cleared away from the word, it is reduced 
to the radical form. Mi is the substantive root man, 
and nam is the plural suffix. 

The six consonant finals of the Chinese language 
occur again in the Tibetan, but with a slight variation. 
The mute surds k, t, p, all occur in the sonant form 



124 



CHINA S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



g, d, b. The Tibetian cannot shape his vocal organs 
so as to pronounce k, t, p, at the end of a syllable. 
This peculiarity is more fixed in the Tibetan than in 
the Siamese, where k, d, and b occur as finals. In this 
respect, therefore, the Tibetan has the palm of an- 
tiquity ; for, as before remarked, there is a strong 
probability that k, t, and p are newer letters than g, d, 
and b y and have been derived from them. 

The capacity of the Tibetan syllabary is much en- 
larged by the addition of the final^-r, I, s. By the 
separation of r and /, the Tibetan phonal system is 
shown to be more modern than the Chinese, which has 
only /, and to stand on the same footing with the 
Eastern Himalaic and Semitic systems. R is very 
abundant in Hebrew as a radical and a suffixed letter, 
and its extensive use in Tibetan warrants a sus- 
picion of ancient intercommunication between the two 
families. The Bod race left Western Asia later than 
the families lying more to the east, and would naturally 
remain in contact with a Semite population for a much 
longer period. In Genesis it is said that the sons of 
Ham were Cush and Mizraim, and Phut and Canaan . 
As Cush had eastern and western branches, so may 
Phut have had also, and he may be the race-father 
both of the Libyans and of the modern Tibetians, now 
spread over the whole of Tibet and Bootan in the 
Himalayas. That section of the armies of Grog and 
Magog mentioned in Ezekiel as belonging to the 



TIBETAN AND HEBREW. 125 

Phuttian race may have been contributed by the 
Eastern branch. 

However this may be, the Bod race and the Semites 
are, at any rate, alike in their fondness for prefixing 
various letters to their words, and in adding r and I 
as suflpjxes. The Hebrews said gilgal, galgal, for a 
"wheel," and gulgoleth, for a "skull," from which 
comes Golgotha, the Aramaic original of the Latin 
Calvary in the Gospels. The Tibetians say kor, "a 
circle," Mor, "; wheel." The Chinese have gu, "a, 
ball," and kit, "a garland," "a hoop." To this root 
the Tibetians added r, the Semites /, and then farther 
west it took the forms circulus, kvkXos, kv\Iv$g). The 
Sanscrit chakra, "wheel," and chahrawat, "circular," 
are from the same root, by the common change from 

k to ch. The Hebrew, I^J? ngagur, " revolving," 73JJ 

"revolve," 7^ "round," may be also included, because 

the primitive value oiayin, the initial consonant, is ng or g. 
Among the letters the surd mutes k, t, p, are very 
weak. They scarcely fill a page each in the dictionary. 
The first k is the most important. The aspirated 
forms kh, th, ph, k', t\ p { , abound, as do the sonants 
g, dy b. Much the same law appears to exist in the 
Hebrew vocabulary. The two &'s together cover fifty- 
one pages, while the aspirate heth covers seventy, 
and g and ng together ninety- seven pages. The surd 
t, the aspirate th, and the sonant d, occupy respectively, 



126 china's place in philology. 

five, forty, and twenty-three pages. The labial series 
includes,^ and/together, eighteen, and b seventy pages. 

Compare these results with the Sanscrit vocabulary, 
and it will be found that the tables are turned, k and 
its cognate ch occupy 108 pages, their aspirates eleven, 
and the sonants g and,/ fifty- seven. The dental series, 
t, d, and dh, has the numbers thirty-one, forty, twelve. 
The labial series p, b, and p', b e , has ninety-six, eleven, 
twenty-one. Here the surds have a clear superiority, 
and the influence of the aspirates has greatly diminished. 

These facts reveal the existence of a great general 
law, according to which the aspirates and surds grew 
out of the sonants. The older vocabularies, as the 
old Chinese, the Turanian, the Tibetan, and the 
Semitic, have a preponderance of sonate initials and 
finals, b, c, d. Then the limits of language were 
extended to satisfy the ever-increasing wants of the 
historical races and the advance of civilization, and 
the aspirates appeared, Jc { , V, p l , h l , A, 6, </>, /, with 
the surds k, t, p, h. These would spring up in some 
countries contemporaneously. In others, as in the 
Tibetan and Tartar languages, the aspirates grew 
into use alone, and the surds slowly followed. This 
law embraces the celebrated Grimm's law as one of 
its particulars. The reason why dip, deep, door, are 
in German taufen, tie/, and Thur, is that the English 
vocabulary is in this respect older than the German, 
and that the German has advanced one stage farther 



TIBETAN AND HEBREW COMMON WORDS. 



127 



than the English in the development of the surd 
initials. K, t, p, have grown out of g, d, and b, just as 
we have seen r and I, in the Semitic and Himalaic 
systems, grow out of an original / in the old Chinese. 
Our English / and th have grown out of a more 
ancien^ b and d. Father is in Hebrew ab, in old 
Chinese be, in Turkish baba, in Tibetan yab, in 
Latin pater, in German Vater. In the older syllabaries 
it was ba and ab, and here we see another lurking 
similarity existing between the Tibetan and the Semitic 
families meeting as they do in the use of ab, yab, 
" father." It is found with p in some southern 
Chinese dialects, and in Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin. 
Modern Chinese agrees with English and German in 
giving the / sound. New vocabularies have a pre- 
ponderance of surds, as old vocabularies delight in 
sonants. Grimm's law is not so much a circular law, 
as one of perpetual advancement. 



TABLE OF TIBETAN AND HEBREW COMMON WORDS. 


TIBETAN. 


HEBREW. 


ENGLISH. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


yum 


em 


mother 




lang 


lakahh 


receive 


Greek \ay xdvco. 


lug 


rahhel {ewe) 


sheep 




log, side 


tselang 


rib, side 


Chinese lok, rib. 


rum 


rahham 


womb 




rab, exalted 


rab 


great 




ring 


rahhoq 


long, far 


Chinese dung. 


la 


r 


to 




lha, gods 


eloah 


God, angels 




langs, vapour, ghost 


ruahh 


spirit, wind 




rogs, friend 


rd-ang 


friend 





128 



In this list of words common to the Tibetan and 
Semitic vocabularies, the circumstance that r agrees 
usually with r, and I with I, is itself evidence that the 
two families grew up together in their early youth. 

The Tibetan, like the Mongol, Cochin- Chinese, and 
the Indian languages, has not to this day admitted 
/ into its alphabet ; but sh y which is not used in 
Mongolia or Japan, has here, as in the Semitic and 
Chinese languages, a full development. 

The tones of the Tibetan language are mentioned 
by Georgi, but no allusion is made to them by De 
Koros or by Schmidt. They are attached, like the 
Siamese tones, to the letters of the alphabet in sets, 
and are, I believe, arranged in a scale of two 
elevations, as is usually the case in Chinese. 

Dr. Jaeschke, a missionary long resident in Ladak, 
and who has extended his researches into the various 
provincial dialects, informs me that the tones are 
limited to the central provinces. To compensate for 
the loss in colloquial pronunciation of letters recog- 
nized in the written language, the Lhasa dialect has 
introduced (1), an aspiration which may be symbolized 
by the forms dh, gh, bh, jh ; (2), a deep tone. The 
word chang, "beer," sounds high, short, and sharp. 
The deep tone is a lower slow rising inflexion. By 
comparing Dr. Jaeschke's remarks with my own notes 
on the Lhasa pronunciation, as taken from the lips of a 
native visiting Peking, I believe it is correct to state 



TONES OF THE TIBETAN LANGUAGE. 129 

that surds are pronounced with the upper quick 
falling intonation, and sonants with the lower slow 
rising. Among the sonants, however, there has been 
a loss of g, j\ d, b. These are by the Lhasa people 
pronounced kh, &h i t'h, ph. The loss thus sustained 
is compensated for by the lower or deep tone. This 
change resembles that which takes place in China in 
passing from the old middle dialect to Mandarin or to 
the Hakka, when du, " map," becomes Pu with the 
aspirate. In both countries the sonant is the older, 
and the aspirate with its special tone the newer 
form. 

What caused the tones? I believe Dr. Jaeschke to 
be right in his view, that it was the loss of letters. 
When certain initial and final letters, faithfully pre- 
served in the book language and in the dialects of 
the western provinces of Tibet, became mute in the 
neighbourhood of Lhasa, the tones were affixed by 
an unconscious effort of language to maintain dis- 
tinctions between words that would be otherwise 
confounded. This hypothesis of the origin of tones 
agrees with that advocated long since in my " Gram- 
mar of the Chinese Colloquial Language." 

After the researches of Dr. Jaeschke, which show 
that the mute letters of the Lhasa dialect and of the 
written language, are all heard distinctly in the pro- 
nunciation of some of the frontiers, philologists must 
regard the written form of the Tibetan, with its 



130 china's place in philology. 

troublesome compound letters, as^faithfully representing 
the old state of the language. 

A Semitic principle here appears working itself out 
in a somewhat exaggerated manner. The language 
made too great an effort to expand itself by prefixes 
and suffixes, and is now throwing them off, and 
gradually assuming the primeval monosyllabic form. 

The tonic element seems destined to extend itself 
in Tibetan, as it has done in Chinese. It is now in 
the Lhasa dialect doing the work which was formerly 
done by the difference between surd and sonant initials. 
The syllables kha and ga have assumed tones, and ga 
has changed to kha, so that they are now separated only 
by intonation. A native of Lhasa reads kha for ga, and 
intones the syllable. 

A subject of great interest in Tibetan is the post- 
position of the case particles. Excepting the locative 
case suffixes' of the old and new Chinese, there was 
no earlier family from which the Bod race could 
borrow this idea. It manifestly originated in the 
post-position of the verb. For it is more likely that 
the case particles should take their place after their 
nouns, as an instance of a general law which drew all 
the verbs into that position, than that they should 
first go there themselves, and then draw the other 
verbs after them. There is little difficulty in con- 
ceiving the way in which the locative case particles 
came, in the old Chinese, to occupy a position after 



POST- POSITION OF CASE PARTICLES, 131 

their nouns. They are in fact, as explained in a 
previous chapter, treated as substantives following 
other substantives in the relation of the part to the 
whole. In the phrase tHen Ma, " the world," literally 
"heaven under," the word "under" is viewed as a 
noun, "that which is under." The possessive particle 
ck'i might be inserted, t'ien ch'i hia, showing that we 
are quite right in regarding the Chinese post-position 
of the locative as only an instance of the juxtaposition 
of substantives. 

The Chinese language cannot, therefore, explain 
the great inversion of the Tibetan and Turanian 
languages, according to which the verb with the case 
particles comes after the noun. Perhaps the best 
explanation is found in a general tendency of these 
races to collect the energy of linguistic expression 
at the end both of sentences and words. The boldness 
of the Semite imagination was caused by religious 
culture, the habit of meditating on the objects of the 
spiritual sphere, and the possession of the primeval 
revelation made in the antediluvian period, and handed 
down from age to age. Hence poetic laws control 
the language and literature of the Semites. They 
attribute life to inanimate things, and action to objects 
that are at rest. They filled the world around them, 
as they did their grammatical paradigms, with the dis- 
tinctions of gender. The Tibetians and Tartars are 
at the opposite pole. They are almost destitute of 



132 



imagination. The sun and moon, the river, the stone, 
the mountain, are to them simply what their names 
imply— 

" A yellow primrose was to him 
A yellow primrose, and no more." 

They take the world quietly. Things are to them 
before action. Personification is to them an absurdity. 
The effort required to look on the universe as animated 
with living forces is to them almost impossible. Their 
books are translated, their alphabets are borrowed, 
and they have learned the arts of life from their 
neighbours. They let go with facility the old 
Turanian religion, and took in the place of it the 
Buddhistic faith, a creation of the dreaming Hindoo. 
This pleases them because it teaches inactivity. The 
thought of Nirvana imparts to them consolation, 
because it consists of unbroken rest. The Tibetians 
have two substantive verbs, nyug and dod, which 
mean either " to sit," or " to be." Sitting is being. 
Races of active intellect do not form substantive 
verbs thus. 

In conformity with this predisposition to inactivity, 
they postpone the place of the verb in a sentence 
to the end. All the details are carefully completed 
before action commences. A nation with very little 
poetry will have an unpoetical language, for the 
child is father of the man. A language, the work 



CASE PARTICLES. 133 

of a race in its childhood, will be found to resemble 
the literature which that race achieves in its 
maturity. So the Mongol and the Tibetian, in intro- 
ducing the principle of the post-position of the verb, 
have only done what we might expect from the 
dullness of their literary development. 

The case particles in Tibetan are few. There is 
a possessive, kyi, gi, gyi, hi, and yi. In Chinese 
dialects occur as possessives, ku at Shanghai, ge 
and e at Amoy. They are probably identical with 
the Tibetan and with the demonstrative roots ki, gi, i. 

An s appended to the possessive particles makes 
them instrumental, and the sense, " by means of," 
" by the use of," is thus conveyed. 

Among the dative case suffixes the commonest, la, 
may be the Semitic le, used as a dative prefix. The 
Tibetians may have borrowed it at some ancient 
period of contact, before the Persian race separated 
them from the Semite area, and before they migrated 
to their present locality. The case suffixes, expressive 
of motion towards, tu and du, as in lag-tu, " into 
the hand," Bod-du, "into Tibet," are probably the 
Chinese to, in Mandarin tau, " towards," " to." The 
Mongol corresponding case suffix is de. After a 
vowel ru is used by the Tibetians for tu and du. 
This I incline to think is changed from du. Thus, 
ring, "long," is in Old Chinese dung, in Mandarin 
&hang. 



134 



The locative suffix in is na or la, and the ablative 
nas or las. 

Such is the beginning of the declension of nouns, 
which expanded itself somewhat in the Turanian 
languages, and grew to its fullest dimensions in the 
Sanscrit. 

We have also in Tibetan the rudiments of the 
system of derivatives. The following forms are in 
use : 

Monosyllabic Suffixes : pa, ba, ma, po, bo, mo, ka, k'a, ga, nga, ge, nge, 

ni, p'o, mo, bu, hu, gu, ngu, nu. 
Dissyllabic Suffixes : papa, pama, papo, pamo, bapa, bapo, bama, bamo. 
Closed-syllable Suffixes : chig, zhig, chag, dag, nams. 

The various significations of these suffixes are as 
follows : 

Plural Suffixes : chag, dag, nam. 

Diminutives : gu, ngu, nu, bu, hu. 

Masculine : po, bo, pa, papa, papo. 

Feminine: ma, mo, pama, pamo. 

Agents or Verbal Substantives : po, ba (masc. or fern.). 

It is the tonic pronunciation which prevents derived 
words from becoming dissyllables and polysyllables. 
The inflexions attached to the root and the suffixes 
have a tendency to check the consolidation of the 
syllables into a unity. Yet this is in time overcome. 
In the Peking pronunciation of Chinese a suffix very 
frequently loses its tone and becomes de facto a part 
of the word which precedes it. 1 

The verb forms its infinitive by appending r to pa 
1 Mandarin Grammar. 



THE TIBETAN VERB. 135 

or ba, as byed par (pronounced ched par), "to do." 
Byed pa is either a present participle or a verbal 
noun, " doing." Byed alone is an indicative present, 
"he does." 

In many cases verbs are placed in the indicative 
present by adding byed, "do," as an auxiliary, as in 
za . par byed, " he eats," gro par byed (pronounced 
t'o par ched), " he walks." Other auxiliaries, zhin pa, 
hdug, snang, are used with the same force. 

Yerbs are made preterite by affixing s. An auxiliary 
verb, hdug pa, "was," placed after a verb, changes 
it to the imperfect tense, as hong hdug pa, " he was 
coming." The future adds hgyur. 

In the form for the imperative we meet curiously 
with a Semitic peculiarity. The vowel a or e is 
changed to o. Za, " he eats," becomes zo, " eat." 
Sel, "he cures," becomes sol, "cure." In the Hebrew 
paradigm, katal, "he killed," becomes in the imperative 
ktol; and sabab, "he surrounded," becomes sob. To a 
change like this there is no parallel in Chinese or 
Mongol, and it is difficult to conceive any explanation 
but that of ancient Semitic connexion. 

A precative is formed by the suffix chig, zhig, or 
shig. This may be the Chinese root sik, "give," or 
shung, " reward." The Mongols in their imperative 
add a verb "to give" just in this way, — T'a naded 
helji ug, "you me for speak give,", that is, "be kind 
enough to speak for me." 



136 



CHINA S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



The conditional suffix na is undoubtedly derived 
from the root nak, which now appears in Chinese as 
jo and ju, "if." Thus, byed na, "if you do." 

The changes in the prefixes of the Tibetan verb 
are due to a principle which was also at work, as 
before noticed, in the formation of the verb. To 
" call " is hgngs, in the indicative present, bkug in 
the preterite, dgug in the future, and k'ug in the 
imperative. The Chinese root is kok, " call," in 
Greek KaXeco, in English call. The prefix h frequently 
marks the present, b the preterite or future, and d or 
g the future. 

Another principle, to which attention should be 
drawn, is the change, with the moods and tenses, 
from sonant to surd and from aspirate to sonant, e.g. 
from g to k and from k ( to g. 



TIBETAN. 


CHINESE. 














Present. 


Tret. 


Future. 


Imper. 


New. 


Old. 






ht'ags 


btags 


btag 


t'og 


chi 


tek 


texo 


weave 


htogs 


btags 


gdags 


fogs 






Saxon tig, a tie 


tie 


hbigs 


P'ig 


dbig 


p'ig 


p'iau 


p'ok 


prick 


pierce 


hbyed 


p'ye 


dbye 


p'ye 






TrpaTTOo, irpayfjia 


do 


ht'sog 


btsogs 


btsog 


tsog 


siau 


sok 


seco, section 


cut 


hdzem 


bzem 


gzem 


zem 






schamen, shame 


shame 


hgegs 


bkag 


dgag 




kie 


kak 


check 


hinder 


hgebs ! 


bkab 


dgab 


k'ob 


kai 


kap 


tfu7rra>, Heb. kafar 


cover 



1 This is a widely-extended root. The Chinese kap means " head," 
" covering," " coat of mail/' and " to cover." The Tibetan has k l ob, 
" a covering," and mgo, " head." The "Western languages have caput, 
Eaupt, head, KtQah-f), crab, cope, etc. 



ANTIQUITY OF THE TIBETAN TYPE. 137 

But these principles, the first of prefixed augments 
and the second of the interchange of allied letters, 
have not been carried through the language, and 
they have failed to acquire the authority of irresistible 
law. This may have been owing to the want of strong 
will in the race speaking the language. Although 
characterized by this weakness, the principles here 
alluded to are deeply interesting as examples of very 
early efforts of the human race to conjugate their 
verbs in a way neither Semitic nor Indo-European. 
The geographical position occupied by the Tibetians 
indicates that their language may be expected to be 
a stepping-stone between the oldest and the newest 
types. The Chinese are on one side and the 
Persians on the other. But no early literature 
crystallized the language in its ancient form. How 
far it may have lost features which once belonged 
to it, it is now impossible with accuracy to determine. 

The antiquity of the Tibetan type, as compared with 
the Turanian and Indo-European, cannot be ques- 
tioned, when its monosyllabic character and stunted 
derivative system are properly considered. The only 
modern-looking feature is, indeed, the post-position 
of the verb and of the case particles, as already 
alluded to. The personal pronouns show that the 
long neighbourhood of Mongols, Turks, Hindoos, and 
Persians, has failed to have any effect on the Tibetar 
towards introducing into it their favourite word*?, lho£ 



138 



and me, be and become. The first personal pronoun 
in b or m, the second in t or s, and the substantive 
verb in b, are used over the whole vast extent of the 
Indo-European and Tartar area, but into no Tibetan 
or Chinese dialect have they ever forced their way. 
The long continuance of linguistic differences between 
races that have been living side by side for thousands of 
years is at least as remarkable as the mutual influence 
they exert on each other's vocabulary and grammar. 
In the Tibetan pronouns and substantive verbs we 
see a Chinese impress. Nga for "I," k'hyed for 
" thou," k'o for " he," with yin, yod, for " to be," 
"to have," reveal a cousinship with the countrymen 
of Confucius. They are apparently no other than 
the old Chinese words nga, " I," m, 1 " you," gi> " he," 
wei, "be," u, "have." 

1 The common Western equivalent for the Chinese ni is h, g, or k'. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



The Triple-Branched Turanian Family : Japanese, Dra vidian, 
and Tartar. — First, the Japanese. — Japanese Syllabic 
Alphabet. — Common Roots in Japanese. — Formation of Com- 
pounds. — Case Particles. 



We now pass the boundary between the mono- 
syllabic and polysyllabic languages. The dividing 
line is a sharp one, which the traveller crosses from 
the region of tone systems and carefully-pronounced 
inflexions of the voice to the 'freedom of polysyllabic 
speech. He suddenly finds that he is where tonic 
laws have been thrown away, and all accented and 
inflected elocution has been transferred from the 
region of the syllabary and the vocabulary to that 
of the passions and the will. It is but a short 
distance from the Chinese city to the Mongol en- 
campment, but the change of scenery is great. An 
agricultural plain, studded with villages and clumps 
of trees, with all the signs of industry, is left at the 
foot of the chain of mountains, along which the Great 
Wall is built. These mountains must be ascended, 
and at the height of 2,000 feet commences the table- 
land, which has received the name of "the land of 



140 china's place in philology. 

grass." Field labour suddenly comes to a termination, 
and everywhere are seen the marks of pastoral occu- 
pations. It is the land of the roaming deer, the 
patient camel, the vigorous ox, of tents and fleecy 
flocks, and droves of ponies; of vast plains without 
trees, and a limitless horizon, only varied by the 
undulations which this immense prairie has retained 
from the far distant time when it formed part of 
the bottom of the primeval ocean. Such is nature's 
own well-defined line of separation between the mono- 
syllabic and polysyllabic languages. 

But it is necessary to begin with an older stock 
than the Tartar. The Mongol and the Turk are 
much nearer to the Western type of language than 
are the far-off Japanese, nor apparently can the Indian 
Tamul compete successfully with the Japanese and 
the Corean for the prize of superior antiquity. 

In looking at the Japanese alphabet, with its forty- 
seven syllables, generally terminating with a vowel, 
we remark at once several limitations. The letters 
r and I are not separated. The Japanese use r, and 
the Chinese I, and these letters are employed only to 
commence a syllable. In Mongol both are used at 
the commencement and close of syllables. The Dra- 
vidian languages have a very full development of r 
and /. As a child whose mother-tongue is English 
learns to distinguish the other letters first, and r and 
I last, so it is in the comparative chronology of Ian- 



JAPANESE LANGUAGE. 141 

guages. The distinction between r and / is a sign 
of late formation. Judged by this test, the Japanese 
and Chinese are older than their Western neighbours. 
The word mid, " honey," has final d in old Chinese, 
and in the Sanscrit it is madhu. In Hebrew we find 
mathckk, "was sweet," doubtless the same word, and 
here the final k is a Semitic addition. The Greeks 
had a wine called /juedv, "mead." The Turks and 
Mongols use I final, and change the initial m to b, 
saying bal. The Japanese have mits, and the Tamul 
madu. The Greeks and Latins appear to have followed 
the Turanians in the use of the final /, as in mel, 
/j,e\i, " honey," fiiXcacra, "bee." Here the Greek is 
more under Turanian influence than either the Sanscrit 
or Germanic branches of the Indo-European family. 
Also, the Tamul and Japanese both appear to be 
older than the Tartar subdivision of the Turanian 
family. Take another example. The Mongol gol, 
" river," is in Japanese kawa, in modern Chinese ho, 
and in old Chinese ga. The addition of I seems to 
have been made after the separation of the Tartar 
and Japanese races. The word for crow, Kopai;, in 
Latin corvus, is in Sanscrit kdka or karada. The 
Mongol is k'eriye, and the Japanese karasi. The 
Chinese have kwa, in the modern compound lankica, 
"crow," where lau means "old." The Chinese and 
Sanscrit forms indicate that r is an addition to the 
primeval root. The Hebrew form is 2°$, where ayin, 



142 china's place in philology. 



as very frequently happens, represents k or g, and 
the word may read goreb. The r medial connects the 
Hebrew, second Sanscrit, Mongol, and Japanese forms 
in one group. The last addition, b in Hebrew, v in 
Latin, ks in Greek, h in German (Krahe), d in Sanscrit, 
ye in Mongol, si in Japanese, must, from its variety, 
have been made after the separation of the races. 
Thus, the Japanese, although to the east of China, 
are connected more closely with the Western than 
with the Chinese system. It may also be inferred that 
the Japanese brought r with them in their migration 
eastward, and the question then arises, whether 
the initial r of Western languages is older or younger 
than the Chinese /, to which it corresponds? The 
Old Chinese hit, "musical tubes in definite lengths, 
used for regulating weights and measures," agrees in 
idea with the Greek pvd/JLos ; and the Latin ritas of 
the same group corresponds to the Chinese li or lit, 
" ceremony." As I is easier for young children to 
utter than r (mothers tell me that they can say / a 
year and a half sooner than r), the palm of priority 
in the history of language should be accorded to I in 
this case; and thus the bulk of Western roots com- 
mencing with an initial r may with probability be 
supposed to have taken it in exchange for a more 
ancient /. 

Another peculiarity in the Japanese syllabary is, 
that the aspirates are wanting, If words cross the 



JAPANESE SYLLABIC ALPHABET. 143 

sea to Japan, whether Chinese or Mongol, the 
aspirated letters, k', t', p' y become simple surds, 
namely, k, t, and h, or /. Insulation seems to be the 
cause of this change. 

The absence of sh, ch, zh, and j from the syllabary, 
gives it a very defective appearance, but this is one 
of the characteristics of some of the most important 
Turanian languages, and helps to establish the near 
kinship existing between them and the Japanese. 
Perhaps it should rather be said that these letters 
are used to a small extent. In Hepburn's very 
valuable Japanese Dictionary the syllables si, tsi, dzi, 
are written shi, chi, ji ; but this mode of writing, 
though doubtless convenient in some respects, is 
probably not so accurately descriptive of the real 
sound as the Dutch spelling. In explanation of the 
want of sh and its cognate letters, it may be men- 
tioned that in the Mongol and Tamul languages they 
are not found. The Mongol has indeed occasionally an 
sh, but it is only, like the same letter in Japanese, a 
modification of si. So the Mongol ch' is in fact a 
modified ts', and,; is a disguised d, as will be shown. 

The surds and sonants are by the Japanese con- 
sidered as so closely allied, that a short double stroke 
on the right hand is used to change k, t, and s ( , into g, 
d, and z. The letters /, b, p, are considered as one 
sound under three modifications. The double stroke 
denotes b, and a small circle p. Thus kami, " god," 



144 china's place in philology. 

" spirit," becomes garni, in the combination onna garni, 
" a goddess." Here it is on account of a word pre- 
ceding it that k becomes g. That k and g were 
originally one letter seems likely also because the 
sounds of the Chinese language are by the Japanese 
written with extreme irregularity. Thus k and g and 
other pairs of cognate letters, carefully kept separate 
in Chinese dictionaries, are in the Japanese transcrip- 
tion much intermixed. The Chinese sin, " heart," is 
spelt sin or zin ; and zhin, " spirit," " divinity," " the 
genii," "marvellous," is in Japanese spelt sin or zin, 
as in zin riki, " marvellous strength " (in the native 
language, " kami no chikara ") ; while Japan is called 
sin koku, " kingdom of the genii " (in the native 
language, " kami no kuni "). 

This tendency to an interchange of surds and so- 
nants is probably due to the recent appearance of 
either the surds or the sonants. In the syllabary, it 
is the surd series that holds the place of honour, and 
it is therefore likely to be the older. When the 
Japanese, nearly 2,000 years ago, invented their alpha- 
bet, or rather borrowed it from China, they made no 
provision for g, d, b, or z. This was a later addition, 
dating from the time when Corean, Chinese, and 
Hindoo Buddhists propagated their religion in Japan. 
As an auxiliary proof, it may be mentioned that the 
Mongol egude, " door," appears in Japanese as kado ; 
yek'e, "great," as ikai; maihan, "a tent," as makuya, 



JAPANESE SYLLABIC ALPHABET. 145 

though this word may be directly derived from the 
Chinese (mu, in the old form) niok, "a tent," in 
Japanese maku, a "curtain." 1 Why should & always 
occur? It is very likely that there was at that time 
no g, as there was no aspirated k. 

But jt is necessary to carry this inquiry further. 
The Mongols have g, d, b, and the aspirates, but no 
hard surd series. I suppose, therefore, that this was 
also the primitive condition of the Japanese phonal 
system. As the two races are alike in grammatical 
structure, and have many identical words, they may 
long ago have had the same sort of alphabet. The 
g may have become k after the progenitors of the 
Japanese passed to their island home, and subsequently 
g may have been again developed as a sub-division 
under k, or vice versa. 

The softness and simplicity of the Japanese syllabary, 
admitting no final consonant but n, and terminating 
all its forty- seven syllables by the five vowels a, % e, 
o, u, seem due to the mild and damp climate induced by 
its insular situation. Its syllables are predominantly 
Polynesian in form, but certainly not because of near 
connexion in race. The Polynesian islanders place 
their verbs before the objects on which their action is 
exerted, and their adjectives prefer to follow the nouns 



1 Compare also Japanese katai, kataku, " hard," Mongol k'at'ago, and 
in the eastern dialect, hat'o. 

10 



146 china's place in philology. 

they qualify. 1 In Japanese the verb follows its accu- 
sative, and the adjective precedes its noun. It may 
be concluded then that, as Hoffmann pointed out in 
his notes to Donker Curtius' Japanese Grammar, 2 the 
family connexion of the Japanese language is with 
Manchu and Mongol. This being admitted, that 
difference in the syllabaries which consists in separat- 
ing final consonants from the first syllable, and causing 
them to form new syllables, should be attributed to the 
relaxing effect of sea air on the vocal organs. The 
Mongols can say gos, gol, gang, gar, yah, ed, beg. The 
Japanese will make dissyllables of all these, thus in- 
creasing the influence of the vowels at the expense of 
the consonants. The Chinese dok, "poison," becomes 
for instance dohu. 

In the present state of the Japanese syllabary, ng 
has taken the place of n final, but this has not affected 
the orthography. N is still written. The sibilants s, 
ts, and dz, also sometimes drop their vowel, and in 
actual pronunciation take their place as final letters. 3 

The language of the Japanese had already become 

1 Notes by T. Gulich, M.D., on the language of Ponape, one of the 
Caroline Islands. 

2 Professor Max Muller, writing in 1861, has invested Prof. Boiler, of 
' Vienna, with the honour of discovering that the Japanese language ought 

to be called Turanian. But the resemblance had several years before 
(1857) been perceived by the penetrating sagacity of the Dutch Professor, 
to whom we owe so many ingenious remarks on the Japanese language. 

3 Hepburn notices some other final consonants, as m and p in certain 
positions. 



COMMON ROOTS IN JAPANESE. 147 

polysyllabic when transferred from Corea to their 
islands, for a few Mongol words of three syllables 
occur in the vocabulary, e.g. kataku, " hard," Mongol 
k'at'ago. The root is the same with that of our word 
hard, and the German hart. In Sanscrit we meet with 
kaParay "hard," kat'ina, kdt'inya, "hardness," kat'a, 
"rock," Mongol k'ada, "rock." 

The first two syllables of a native Japanese word 
usually represent the monosyllabic root. Thus kit, in 
Chinese " to harden," " coagulate," " tie a knot," kin, 
" hard," " firm," occur in Japanese with long suffixes. 
Katamari is " to become hardened," katame, " harden," 
and as above adduced kataku, katai, " hard." So also 
the root zhut, in Chinese, sheu, " to give," " to receive," 
formerly distinguished by tone, the one taking the 
rising (shang), and the other the falling (k'ic) inflexion, 
but now amalgamated in the falling tone class, is found 
in the Japanese vocabulary, with the forms, sadzukaru, 
" to receive," and sadzukeru, " to bestow," or sadzkatta 
and sadzketa. The Chinese have ch'i, " to stop," in 
Japanese todomari, "to be stopped," todokori, "to im- 
pede," "stop," todome, "to stop," as in uma ivo todo- 
meru, "stop ahorse," todomerare, "to be stopped." The 
Chinese has lost a final t, which appears in dot, " to 
stand," "to tread upon," " rest the foot." The Chinese 
initial eh in all cases comes from t or d. Hence the 
root assumes the form dot, " to stop," and dat, " to 
stand." This is really the root of our " stand," the 



148 china's place in philology. 

Latin sto, the Sanscrit st'ala, " stand," st'dna, " a 
place." The Tamul has tandu, " a stand," the 
Japanese also say tatsi and tatta, "to stand." The 
initial s was prefixed by the forefathers of the Indo- 
Europeans before the separation of their western and 
eastern branches, for they all have it. The primeval 
root was probably dad and dan. It may have 
originated from the noise of the foot striking the 
ground. Families of words closely allied are not 
wanting. Among them may be mentioned the Chinese 
ti or dad, "earth." Sanscrit dhdrd, Latin terra, 
Cochin- Chinese dat. The earth on which we stand 
receives its name from the verb "stand," and is a 
verbal noun, just as "inkstand," and "the grand 
stand" at a race course, receive their names for a 
similar reason. 

"We are now in a position to compare the Japanese 
roots with Chinese, Semitic, and Himalaic roots, and 
with those of the cognate Turanian languages. In 
doing so the Chinese initial h must be read k or g, 
ch must be read t or d, and / must be read p or b. 
Thus ho, " fire," is gal in Mongol and color in Latin, 
where the inserted I shows that a Turanian influence 
has been at work in the formation of the Indo- 
European polysyllable. The Greek /ccllco, "burn," 
and Grerman heiss, English hot, are connected, as 
also the Sanscrit kdrshanava, " hot," and the root kdsh, 
" shine." The Chinese word ho, " fire," was in the 



COMPARISON OF ROOTS. 149 

time of the creation of the syllabic spelling, a.d. 500, 
pronounced ha. More anciently it was ka, and more 
anciently still ga, which is as far as the analogies of 
the connected languages will carry us. The Japanese 
have koge, " burn," " scorch," in Chinese k'au, 
" scorch/' Our word scorch, if the prefix s be removed 
and the ch changed for its ancient equivalent, k, 
appears to be the same word. The letter s, when 
prefixed to a consonant, never belongs to the root. 

The Japanese say for " fire " hi. This must for 
etymological use be changed to bi, or pi, as in the 
case of all words beginning in Japanese with h or /. 
It may then be compared with the verb aburi, " roast," 
Tamul pori, with the Chinese bun, " burn," the Greek 
Trvp, Latin comburo, and the English burn and fire. 

For " warm " the Japanese word is atatakai, and for 
" hot " atszku. The root is at, for the sibilant form 
of t in the latter example is accidental. We may 
compare it with the Persian atesh and the Hebrew 
&?{St esh. The etymological equivalent of the Hebrew 
sh is t, as in shor, "bull," taurus ; sham, "there," 
Chaldee tarn. The Persian final sh is thus seen to 
be a reduplication of the final t. Compare the Greek 
aiOco and Latin cestus, which Gesenius believed to be 
connected. This author proceeds to say that ^fttf ur, 
"light," belongs to the same family relationship. 
This is an extremely interesting identification, because 
the letter r occupies a frequent place among the 



150 



Semitic initials. For convenience of comparison with 
Chinese roots it should have the value d. For example, 
VfV\ rosh, "head," may be advantageously compared with 
the Chinese t'eu, "head," old form dut. The equivalent 
of sh being also t, the resemblance is complete. 

A fourth Japanese root for "fire" is yake, "to be 
on fire," "bake." The Chinese say yik, "flame," "fire," 
"light." The Sanscrit agni, "fire," and Latin ignis, 
are the same word. 

An example of a word common to the three branches 
of the Turanian family will help to show the con- 
nexion in which they stand to each other. Mune is in 
Japanese "the breast," and it is found compounded 
with many words; for example, muna gawara, "roof 
tiles," where the ridge of the roof is called mune from 
its resemblance to the chest. The Mongol has emun, 
" before," " front," " south," and the Chinese mien, 
" face." The Tamul people say mun for " before," 
"front." In Japanese omote is "before," "front," 
" the face," " outside." In Cochin- China the face is 
mat. A door is the front of a house, and in Chinese 
" door " is men, and with this seems to be connected 
the German Mund and the English mouth. The 
interchange of n and t is easily accounted for, they 
being allied letters. The final consonant k is found 
in the root of a family of words closely related to this 
one. The Japanese makai, " to face," " stand with the 
face towards," muki, " frontage," " exposure," is like 



PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES IN JAPANESE. 151 

the Tamul mukam, " mouth," " face," and the Sanscrit 
mukha, "mouth," "face," "commencement," "first." 

In the preceding examples occur several prefixed 
vowels. They are very common in Mongol and 
Japanese. Thus "horse," which is ma in Chinese, is 
mori inbMongol, and uma in Japanese. The Manchus 
say morin. The prefixed vowel agrees in nature with 
the vowel of the root, as in omote, " before," ishi, 
" stone," Chinese zhah. If a vowel be appended to 
the final consonant of the root, when already thus 
augmented, our primeval monosyllable is already ex- 
tended to a trissy liable, and this without the addition 
of new words to make compounds. Thus " hone," to 
be read " bone," the German Bein, and English bone. 
We have the same suffixed e in kake, " to hang up," 
" hook on," in Chinese kwa or kak, and in English 
hook. 

The next step in additions to the root we may 
suppose to have been the appending of consonants. 
Thus from ma, " grind," in modern Chinese mo, in 
Latin mola, in English mill, is derived the Japanese 
maru, "circle." From kak, "black," came k ( ara in 
Mongol, and kuroi in Japanese, the final k being lost 
in both cases. The r and I do not mean anything. 
They are not abbreviated words. They are merely 
phonetic additions. The Mongols are content to add 
an r or I to their roots, without supplementing it by 
a vowel, as gar, "hand," i.e., the "holder." The 



152 china's place in philology. 

Japanese prefer to add a vowel. Hence arose several 
syllabic suffixes in ordinary use for forming deriva- 
tives, and they gradually, as they grew in length, 
assumed distinctive characteristics as nominal, quali- 
tative, or verbal terminations. Thus e in hate, " an 
end," " to end," from a root bat, " to end," in Chinese, 
our word butt, and the French bout, does not dis- 
tinguish between parts of speech. So eshi and ashi 
in hateshi, "the end," and hatashi, "to end," are ap- 
pended to the same root without any mark of dif- 
ference between verb and noun. But in Mongol the 
suffix si or Psi marks nouns distinctly. The following 
derivatives occur to. the roots maru, " circle," and 
kuroi, " black " : — 

marui, "circular." kurai, "dark." 

marume, "make round." kurami, "grow dark." 

marushi, " round." kure, " darken." 

maruku, "round." kuroku, "black." 

rnarusa, "roundness." kurasa, "degree of darkness." 

maroi, "round." kuroshi, "black." 

mart, " a ball." *kurosa, "blackness." 

Of the suffixes here used only me, mi, have a decided 
verbal sense, and they are probably connected with 
the verb suffix meri, meru, mere, which is translated 
" becoming." 

Of the substantive suffixes, sa is the only one that 
seems to be exclusively used of nouns. 

The word siro, "white," takes the derivative forms 
shiroi, shiroku, shiroshi, " white," shiromi, " whiteD," 



FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS. 153 

shirosa, " whiteness." The root is sit in Chinese, 
meaning " snow." In Mongol the t is lost and the 
suffix gan appended, the sibilant initial taking as a 
prefix t aspirated. The Manchu form is shay an. 
Shiromi, " to become white," is also used as a noun 
in the ( sense " white of an egg," and " whiteness," as 
in shiromiga aru, "it has whiteness," where ga marks 
the objective case, and aru is the substantive verb 
used possessively. 

Generally speaking, the final mi marks a verb ; 
oi, ui y ku, si, mark an adjective ; and sa, ru, a noun. 
But these distinctions are not strictly adhered to. 
Language is in the Japanese only approaching to 
accuracy of conception. It was in fact first in the 
Sanscrit that the parts of speech arrived at their full 
form, with accuracy of outline and suitable variety of 
expression. The Mongol conjugates the adverb as he 
does the verb, because language, in its ever- advancing 
development, has not yet reached the epoch of accurate 
grammatical distinctions. So it is in the Japanese 
derivatives. The terminations are wanting in sharp- 
ness of definition. This was for the first time attained 
in the Indo-European system, and even there the 
separate independence of the parts of speech is far 
from being complete. 

The next step in the progress of development is the 
formation of compounds. Ki, "a tree," becomes kiburi, 
"shape of a tree," from/wn or buri, "shape," "manner. 



154 china's place in philology. 

Species precedes genus. This law of position is in- 
variable. Kado bi, "door-fire," is the name of the 
fire in front of a dead person's house to light his way 
to the next world. In Mongol compounds are not 
used without the intervention of the possessive suflix. 
In Tamul, however, they abound, as also in the 
Himalaic and Chinese languages. In Mongol, in- 
flexions have more power, and hence the genitive or 
accusative mark cannot be omitted, except where the 
case is one of simple apposition. Take the following 
example : English cowherd, cowkeeper, Japanese asikdi. 
Here kai is " keeper," and as a verb means "to keep." 
Mongol uk'erc'hi, from ukher, " cow," with the suffix 
c l hi, which is equivalent to our er in shipper, monser, 
chandler. They also say uk'eri sahikc'hi, " cowkeeper," 
where the verb sahihu, "to keep," governs the accu- 
sative in i, and takes itself the suflix of agency, giving 
it the form of a present participle. The Tamul has 
kopalar, " cowherds," and the Sanscrit gopa, where pa 
means " ruler," and may be compared with the Semitic 
Baal, "lord." The Greek /3ovtt)<; and Latin bubulcus 
are formed like the Mongol from words meaning 
" cow," with a suflix of agency. In pecoris custos the 
Latin order is strictly Turanian. The Mongol would 
say uk'erun ejen, literally " cow's lord." Take the 
common Latin word for " cow," wakka (i.e., vacca), 
and the resemblance is still more striking. The 
etymological value of the Latin v is always w or u, 



THE CASE PARTICLES. 155 

as in volo, " to will." And it may also be asked, What 
is the Greek suffix of agency tt;?, as in hnroTqi, but 
the Turanian ch'i, of which the etymological value is 
si ? The letters s and t are convertible in Greek and 
Latin. Apposition of substantives preceded in the 
Turaniati languages the formation of the suffix of 
agency. The formation of compounds by apposition, 
as in Japanese, is an older principle than that by 
which in Mongol a derivative of agency is formed by 
a syllabic suffix. It has also been destined to achieve 
a longer lifetime. The derivative suffixes of agency 
in European languages have not the prevalence now 
that they had 2,000 years ago, and especially in the 
Germanic stock they show signs of approach to ex- 
tinction. Cavalief will become in English an obsolete 
word before horseman. The Manchus and Turks agree 
with the Mongols in the use of c'hi as the suffix of 
agency, but the Turks have also the form dji. Its 
origin may be in sak, " to make," in Chinese tsolc and 
tso, as in mutso, " carpenter," from mu, " wood." 

In proceeding to the case particles, it may be 
observed that they originated in the great Tibetan 
and Turanian inversion, found also in the Sanscrit, by 
which the verb and the demonstrative pronouns were 
transferred from their primeval position, before the 
noun, to the end of the sentence. Prepositions are 
verbs. The case suffixes of the Turanian and Indo- 
European languages are modified prepositions, and 



156 



CHINAS PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



originally verbs or pronouns. The post-position of 
the transitive verb took place first, and subsequently 
the verb roots of the case suffixes became changed 
and shortened in form, and now appear to the investi- 
gator as suffixes, more or less closely combined with 
the substantives to which they belong. 

The Japanese genitive no — as in hi no ha, " leaf of a 
tree," where ha, i.e., ba, " leaf," suggests a connexion 
with the Siamese bai, " leaf," and with folium and blatt 
— is in Manchu ni, and in Mongol sometimes nu, nai. 

We have beside this possessive, four others in China 
and its neighbour countries. They are, ti in Chinese, 
gi or go in Tibetan and the old middle dialect of China, 
i, e, or u in Mongol and the South Fukien dialect, 
and in or un in Mongol and Turkish. The Eastern 
Himalaic languages have adopted the Semitic inversion, 
and place the nominative before the genitive, as in 
Cochin- Chinese luai dau, "edge of knife," where dau 
is " knife." 

Our five possessive suffixes are all, let it be observed, 
in form demonstrative pronouns. No is the Chinese 
na, "that." Ti is di, "this." Gi is gi, "he." E, i, 
or u, is i, "he." In and un are other forms of the 
third personal pronoun. Here we may see, therefore, 
a confirmation of Bopp's view, that the Sanscrit 
genitive suffix sya is an old demonstrative pronoun 
and is equivalent to tyam and tyat, " that." He adds 1 
1 Vergleichende Grammatik, yoii Bopp. § 194. 



CASE PARTICLES COMPARED. 157 

that, " in sya and tya are contained the two stems sa 
and ta, ' he/ with the relative stem ya> ' which.' " 
The Chinese ti, usually read ch'i, is in the ancient books 
used not only as a possessive particle, but in the sense 
of it or that after verbs, and also as a verb with the 
meaning of go to. 

The Greek and Latin genitives in i and u we may 
perhaps derive from the Mongol possessive u, affixed 
as a genitive ending to nouns closing with n. But I 
do not lay stress on this resemblance, for it is possible 
that u is here in fact nu, the Japanese genitive. The 
modern last Mongol dialect allows the possessive ne to 
be used with more nouns than the grammar of the 
book language would admit. 

The case of direction " towards " is in Japanese 
expressed by the suffix he or be and ye. The Tibetan 
has la, the Mongol de and dor, the Turkish ga and 
yeh, the Tamul ku. The Chinese has the verbs to, 
ti, or tau, the same as our " to," and gip or ki, " arrive 
at." In Greek 7r£$ov$e, "to the ground," agrees in 
form with the Mongol. Examples abound in Homer, 
as SofiovSe, "to the house." The Greeks afterwards 
preferred to prefix et?, "to," with an accusative. That 
is, as it appears to me, they were under Turanian 
influence while they used the suffix Be in the sense, 
"to a place," and emancipated themselves from it in 
this instance when they changed the suffix for the 
preposition. This took place soon after the time of 



158 china's place in philology. 

Homer. In confirmation, it may be remarked that 
there is an aspirated form of the Mongol, namely, for, 
which corresponds to the Greek 6l, an old dative. 

Other Chinese verbs, which may be referred to in 
explanation of some of the forms now given, are wang, 
"go towards," hiang, "towards." W and y are inter- 
changeable initials, and the final ng is frequently 
dropped, as in the Chinese ta, " beat," anciently tang. 
The ancient equivalent of initial h is k. Hence these 
two verbs become ye and ka. 

The Japanese be, " to, "^suggests a connexion with 
the Greek irpos, "to," and irapa, "beside," "towards," 
etc. The word proximus, "nearest," is of the same 
family, and the Chinese bing, " unite," bang, " beside," 
bang, " to strike against," are probably related. Hoff- 
mann says be is the side or direction of a thing. The 
verbs heru and furu, mean " to pass from one place to 
another." This is undoubtedly the same word. The 
Chinese words for " unite," " union," " side," " neigh- 
bourhood," " collision," all tend to meet in an ultimate 
root bang, "strike against," derived probably from 
the noise of collision, and preserved in the familiar 
English expression, "bang the door." In the Japanese 
and Mongol languages, the final ng of Chinese roots 
is usually lost. Thus in kwang, " light " (at an older 
period keng), the ng is dropped, and the word re- 
appears in Japanese as karui and akari, and in Mongol 
as gerel. It was then by the Turanians that the ng 



CASE PARTICLES COMPARED. 159 

was dropped and an r substituted. In this state the 
root was introduced into the Indo-European vocabu- 
lary, as in the German hell, "clear," and the Latin 
gloria and clarus, where / is inserted. 

Motion " from " or " by " a place or route, is ex- 
pressed- in Japanese by kara and yori. With the 
Mongols ec'he is the word. But this is etymologically 
ese. They also have yiar as in eguden yer, "by the 
gate." The corresponding case suffix in Turkish is 
den or dan, and in Manchu deri. The Chinese has the 
verbs yen, " take origin from," " let a man do as he 
thinks best," and dzung, " to follow," " obey." As 
prepositions these words appear with the sense " from." 
Yen (Japanese yori, Mongol yer) has lost a final k, for 
the character jfj yeu, is frequently used as a phonetic 
in words which to the present day retain final k, in 
Southern Chinese dialects, as dik, "flute." The old 
value then is ok, the ex of Greek and Latin. The 
other word, dzung, early lost ng, and appears com- 
monly in Chinese in the form dzi, the modern g ts'i. 
All the words having ts as their initial had anciently s 
or z. The old form of this verb is therefore zung or 
zu. The Mongol, having no z, adopted it in the 
form of se, and prefixed to it the vowel e. 

Another old Chinese verb, taking the sense of from 
as a preposition, is tang, " to strike," in modern pro- 
nunciation ta. This may be the source from which the 
Manchu and Turkish forms are derived. The Turkish 



160 china's place in philology. 

den, dan, is found in the Greek 6ev, the old epic suffix 
for " from," as in ovpavoQev, " from heaven." 

The Japanese hara, "from," is compared by Hoff- 
mann to the High Grercnan her, " from that place to 
this." It may be derived from the Chinese verb 
k ( ai or k'i, " to open," " to begin," and hence in 
colloquial usage "to start from." The Japanese use 
ake, akeru, for " to open," and aki, aku, for " to be 
open," as in to wo ake, " open the door," where to, 
"door," is the same word, perhaps, as the Manchu 
duk'a, " city gate," and the Gfreek dvpos. The vowel 
a is a prefix, not radical. 

The locative particles used by the Japanese are ni, 
te, de, and nite. The Turkish has der, the Mongol 
de and dor, the Manchu de, ;the Tamul il and idattil. 
The Chinese have the prepositions yu, "at," "in," 
dzai or zai, " to be in " or " at." As local suffixes 
they use li or lai, net or nip, " within," cluing or tung, 
" in the midst of," or " within." Of these, nei is 
from nip, "to enter," in Modern Chinese ju; and 
chung is either "the middle," or "to strike the middle." 
The p and ng being dropped, most of the locative 
forms now given may be derived from these two 
locative auxiliaries. 

The Greek epic dative in 6l may, from its corre- 
spondence in form and sense with the Japanese and 
Mongol locative, be regarded as of Turanian origin. 
Thus, oinoQi, " at home," aXkoOi, " elsewhere," may be 



CASE PARTICLES COMPARED. 161 

compared with the Mongol ger t l or or ger t'e, " in the 
house," where the usual de or dor becomes t'e or t'or, 
on account of r preceding ; and ober oron dor, or 
more colloquially, ore oron de, " at another place." To 
illustrate the Greek dative suffix 61, Bopp also cites 
evOa, eviavQa, "here," as compared with the ablatives 
evdev, " hence," ifiidev, " from the place where I am," 
forms which resemble the Turkish ablative, as above 
stated. He also refers 1 to the Sanscrit suffix dhas in 
adhas, " under," as connected with the Greek forms, 
and derives all of them from the demonstrative stem in 
t. I ask, will it not be more satisfactory to trace the 
forms in Be and Qi through the Mongol, as a modern 
type of the old Turanian language, to the Chinese §?ij 
tau, " to," used as a dative suffix, and the other word 
already mentioned, tung, " in the midst of," used as 
a locative ? The English to and the German zu have 
the dative force, as well as that of motion " towards " 
and " arriving at "; and the extension of the meaning 
of the word tau, to embrace a dative force, is no more 
than what we should expect when it became a post- 
position and was employed in case formation. 

This word tau, "to," has in Chinese and English 
the surd form. In Sanscrit and Mongol it appears 
with the sonant d, as also in the Latin ad, where a is 
perhaps a prefix for sound's sake. In Mongol and 
Greek it has the aspirated form, and in German it 

1 Bopp. Zweite Ausgabe, § 223. 

11 



162 



occurs as a sibilant, through the fondness of that 
language for the initial ts. 

The Turkish dah, "in," "at," "within the limit of 
space or possession of," 1 with n before it in kandah, 
"where," bundah, "here," much resembles the Japanese 
locatives te and nite. May not this be pointed to as 
the possible origin of the Sanscrit ablative in d ? The 
Turks say buradah, "here," where the r is a mere 
phonal extension of bu, "this." The final h, now 
silent, may possibly represent an old k or g, which 
would render the transition easy from the Chinese 
tang, "from." The Sanscrit kutas, "whence," 1 is not 
far from the Turkish kandan, " whence," especially 
when compared, as by Bopp, with the Greek iroOev, 
where n final replaces s. 

The Turkish kani, "where," contains the Japanese 
ni as its locative suffix. Compare it with the Sanscrit 
kadd, "where." The other Japanese locative is here 
used, d being the representative of the Mongol d in 
dor, da, and the Japanese t in te. Who doubts that 
the Japanese proceeded from the same part of the 
world from which the Hindoos proceeded ? If there 
be any one, the occurrence of resemblances such as 
this should cause him to pause. The Turkish for 
" when " is kachan, and the Mongol heje ; but the 
Mongol j represents d, and h is k ( , so that the Sanscrit 
and Mongol forms agree, except in the circumstance 
1 Redhouse's English and Turkish Dictionary, p. 700. 



CASE PARTICLES COMPARED. 163 

that the Mongol k is aspirated. Can we doubt that 
the period during which the Indo-Europeans lived 
beside the Turanians in Bactria, Persia, and Armenia, 
was fruitful in linguistic results ? Take another form. 
The Sanscrit kati, "how many," is in Mongol hedui, 
k'edui, or, in the modern colloquial, simply hedi. The 
Latin is quot. The Chinese original of these words, 
ki y " how many," is unaspirated, and has probably lost 
a final t. 

The instrumental case in Japanese is formed by the 
suffixes ni, nite, de, te, motte, the last of which is de- 
rived from the verb motsi, " to employ." The Mongol 
has her, yar, log a. In the Dravidian languages are 
found dl (Tamil), an (Sen-Tamil), im (Kannada), 1 in 
newer forms inda. The Chinese na, " to take," tan or 
twan, "to carry," pa, "to take in the hand" (in Mongol 
barihu, "to take in the hand"), and i, "take," jgl, are 
the roots of these forms. The Japanese ni as a loca- 
tive is derived from the Chinese nei, " within," and 
as an instrumental from na, originally nap. The 
Russians have the word nosisk, " to carry." The 
second word is tan, "to take up" or "carry." We also 
find tai, to "carry," or "lead," old form tak, the 
English take. "We also have tarn, "carry on the 
shoulders," and tang, " to undertake." Since se, " the 
back," seems to be derived by dropping n final from 

1 Reise der Novara urn die Erde. Linguistischer Theil, von Dr. 
Friedrich Miiller. 1867. 



164 



senaka, "back," I suppose that the first of the four 
words is the root here sought for, and that the 
Japanese instrumental de and verb tori, "take," are 
the Chinese tan. The third Chinese instrumental 
verb is pa, Mongol barihu, " seize," Russian brat, 
"to seize." This originated the Mongol her, when 
the verb was placed after its noun by the Turanian 
inversion. Here too we find a probable origin for 
the Sanscrit instrumental suffixes bhydm, bhih, and 
the Latin bus. The Sanscrit suffix na I suppose to 
be the Chinese na, " carry." This seems to be a more 
natural way of accounting for it than to refer it to 
the pronominal root a, as Bopp does, a supposition 
which requires the insertion of n for euphony. The 
last Chinese verb to be considered is i, " take," " re- 
gard as," "use." It was much used in the style of 
the Chinese classics. Now it has given way to pa, 
tsiang, na, and tan. It affords a probable origin 
to the Mongol instrumental per or yar, and the 
Sanscrit suffixes ya, a, used in an instrumental sense. 
The Tungus suffix dji is probably the same with the 
Japanese de, by change of d to j. The Zend instru- 
mental is a, agreeing with the prevailing Sanscrit 
form. 

The Lithuanian instrumental suffix mi should be 
compared with the German mit and the Greek fiera. 
The Japanese instrumental motta and motsu are no 
other than this. Motsi, is " to hold," motsiyi ru, is 



CASE PARTICLES COMPARED. 165 

"to use," " employ. " Bopp's derivation from the 
Sanscrit bis seems forced, but lie had so firm a con- 
viction that the Indo-European case suffixes are all 
to be derived from pronominal roots, that he neglected 
nearer and more probable analogies. It is, however, 
a remarkable fact that the Chinese instrumental verbs 
bear a close resemblance to the primeval pronouns. 
The old instrumental * is like the old pronoun i, " he," 
and the modern na, " take," is like the modern pro- 
noun na, "that," and in sound they are distinguished 
only by tones. 

The Japanese accusative suffix wo is like the 
Turkish yi and Mongol i, and is probably derived 
from the old pronoun i for the third person. The 
Chinese i usually comes from an older ui or wet, and 
the transition from wet to wo is not great. In Manchu 
the accusative ba reminds us of the Chinese pa, which 
is used to introduce the accusative, when in the col- 
loquial language the speaker desires to place it before 
the verb which ordinarily governs it, as in pa t'a 
sha liau, " he killed him," literally, " take him kill 
finished." Another accusative ending in Mongol is 
gi. This may be the Chinese third personal pronoun 
gi. Thus Bopp's view that the Indo-European accu- 
sative is of pronominal origin may receive confirmation 
from the formation of the Turanian accusative. The 
Tamil accusative in ei, the Telugu in ni, and the Tibetan 
in gi, appear to be all constructed in a similar manner. 



166 



The Japanese case suffix to has the sense "for the 
sake of," and "in conjunction with." In the former 
sense it agrees with the Mongol to'la, and with the 
Chinese Pi, " instead of." In the latter sense it agrees 
with the Mongol t'ai and Po; as in hamPo, "together," 
and the Chinese dung, "together." The Chinese 
have also dai and ivei, meaning " for the sake of," and 
"on account of." I suppose therefore the Japanese 
to to be a mixture of two words, which -are in Chinese 
t l i or dai, "for," "instead of," and dung, "with." 

The Japanese nominative ba is used like the Mongol 
inu, and as the nominative termination in Greek, 
Latin, and Sanscrit, was probably first used. "With- 
out doubt it is a metamorphosed third personal pro- 
noun. In the Turanian languages this suffix is not 
part of the word, but is a pronominal repetition of 
the nominative. Such too was the origin of the 
termination s in the Greek ol/co?, in Chinese ok, 
"house," in the demonstrative o? in Greek, and is in 
Latin, in Chinese gi and i. But the final has in these 
languages been taken into the word, and forms a part 
of it. The Turanian is the older, and the Indo- 
European the newer mode of doing the same thing. 
Let it not be said that the Turanian languages as 
now known are altogether too modern for the philo- 
logist to regard them as constituting a stepping-stone 
between the Indo-European system, and the venerable 
mother from whom all languages, eastern and western, 



CASE PARTICLES COMPARED. 167 

have sprung. The Japanese writing, being 2,000 years 
old, secures to that language a claim to a very respect- 
able antiquity, and when the Dravidian languages are 
taken into account, that antiquity is greatly increased. 
As the three races, Tartar, Dravidian, and Mongol, 
have not been neighbours since 4,000 years ago, the 
approximate time of the Arian invasion of India, 
all common features existing in the three branches 
must have belonged to the old Turanian stock from 
which all of them proceeded. For example, the post- 
position of the verb, and the formation of cases had 
then already taken place. Among the case particles 
which resemble each other most closely are those 
which mark the accusative and conjunctive relations, 
viz., ei in Tamil and Mongol, and wo in Japanese for 
the accusative, and odu in Tamil, to in Japanese, and 
t'ei or loga in Mongol for the conjunctive, or, as De 
Castren calls it, the comitative case. For example, in 
Tamil pilleiyodu wandan, " he came with the child." 1 
It also appears from this instance, that at that early 
time the final ng of the Chinese word dung, "together," 
was already thrown off in cognate languages, a phe- 
nomenon which occurs in the history of many Chinese 
words, such as wu, " not," formerly mo, and still earlier 
mong y as known from the fact that the character £ 
mong, was frequently used for it in the ancient Chinese 
books. 

1 Pope's Tamil Handbook. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Second Division of the Turanian System. — The Dravidian 
Languages. — Proof that this Family is truly Turanian. — 
Common "Words. — Common Laws of Sound. — Surds and 
Sonants. — Deficiency in Sibilants. — Abundance of Liquids. 
— Syllables usually Open. — Derivation. — Comparative List 
of "Words. — The Verb. — The Passive Negation. — Tense 
Formation. — Dravidian Syntax. 



Professor Friedrich Muller Las expressed doubts 
respecting the Turanian character of the Dravidian 
languages. The proofs of this rest on a multitude of 
common roots, resemblances in alphabet and syllabary, 
identity of syntactical construction, and the similarity 
observable in their system of suffixes. 

First, the roots are the same. Thus, we find resem- 
blances like the following : 

COMMON TURANIAN ROOTS. 



TAMIL. 


MONGOL. 


JAPANESE. 


CHINESE. 


INDO-EUROPEAN. 


kal, foot 


k'ul 




kak 


to kick. 


talei, head 


tologai 


atama 


du, dud 




silei, stone 


c'hilagon 


isi 


zhag 


saxum. 


karam, hand 


gar 






Sans. kara. 


nay, dog 


nohai 


inu 






marei, rain 


boron 


ame 


mo, mist 


Pers. baran. 


kiragam, house 


ger 




ke 


casa. 


— Mnr;} 


degu 


ototo 


de 


'ade\(p6s. 


ira, night 




yoru 


ya 




adigam, much 




dake 







TURANIAN ORIGIN OF THE DRAVIDIAN FAMILY. 169 



TAMIL. 


MONGOL. 


JAPANESE. 


CHINESE. 


INDO-EUROPEAN. 


wegu, much 


yek'e 


okini 






teyilam, oil 


fossa 








ter, chariot 


t'ereg 




t'e 


dray, drag. 


pattini, hunger 




hidaru 






mar am, wood 


modo 




mok 




agam, s%n 


Ma ek'e 


aku 


ak 


wicked. 


kar, blackness 


k'ara 


kuroi 


kek 


caligo. 


andam, egg 


undug 






u6v. 



There is a law in all true Turanian languages, 
according to which the vowel of the root repeats itself 
in the prefixes and suffixes. If it does not repeat 
itself exactly, it takes the form of an allied vowel. 
In Mongol a and o are allied; e and u are also allied. 
The vowel i is doubtful. Hence the syllabic alphabets 
of Turanian languages. The vowels are regarded as 
inherent in the consonants. The consonants are essen- 
tial, and the vowels are secondary. The vowels only 
attained their full and individual importance in the 
Indo-European languages. 

The sounds of the Tamil and other languages of 
the Dravidian family are such as to confirm the fact 
of their Turanian origin. There is noticeable a de- 
ficiency in the development of the letters sh, ch, and 
the surd series generally. Thus k, t, p, become g, d, b, 
when they occur in the middle of a word. Analogy, 
Japanese, and Mongol, shows that the original sounds 
were g, d, b, which become surd at the beginning of 
words or when doubled. In the Japanese language, 



170 china's place in philology. 

words in h or /, for instance, take b for h or /, when 
they follow another word. Hito, " man," becomes bito 
in certain cases. Thus hito bito means "men." Hoff- 
mann has shown how the Japanese h of this century- 
was, last century and previously, /, and that it really 
belonged anciently to the labial series. But it is 
necessary to go further than this, and to reduce the 
h in all cases to b } as its ancient form, as hatashi, " to 
complete," Chinese ba, bad, Mongol barahu. So in 
the plural kuni guni, "kingdoms," corresponding to 
the Manchu gurun, " kingdom," it is better to avoid 
being misled by the Japanese orthography, which 
make g a modification of k, and to regard k as being 
rather a modern modification of g. Here I use the 
word modern with a wide acceptation. The history 
of the Japanese alphabet shows that k and g have been 
divided in Japan for 1,500 years. The fact is that 
the Turanian ear formerly recognized no such dis- 
tinction. Nor does the Mongol of the present day. 
When naming his little tent images to his foreign 
visitor, he will call this one Kalin ejin or Galin ejin, 
" lord of fire," that one Shiggamuni Borhan (that is, 
Shaky amuni Buddha), and another Gesser San or 
Kesser Han, the hero who in Tartary takes the place 
of the seven champions of Christendom. It is nothing 
to him whether he attenuates his initials into k, t, and 
p, or thickens them into g, d, b. His language has 
not yet arrived at this stage. The Japanese have gone 



TAMIL SIBILANTS. 171 

forward most successfully in the division of the surds 
from the sonants. The Tamil- speaking people are in 
a midway position. The Mongol has still to arrive 
at the consciousness of the distinction. But he makes 
use of aspirated surds as a substitute for the pure surds. 
He has a fully developed ¥ and P in his alphabet. It 
may be concluded by analogy that the Tamil k, t, p, 
have come out of g, d> b, and that the true ancient 
sound is heard when it occurs in the middle and end 
of words, e.g., ug, "to desire," Chinese yug or yuk, 
Sanscrit vag, Greek ev^ofjuac, English wish. Here the 
final g becomes k in modern Chinese, and sh in San- 
scrit and English, while in Greek it prefers the aspi- 
rated form. The importance of the Tamil is shown 
by this example, for with the intermediate form ug as 
a guide, there can be no just ground of hesitation in 
identifying the Chinese root having the initial y with 
the Indo-European root having the initial v, or, which 
is the same thing, w. 

The Tamil sibilants are very defective. When s 
is doubled or follows d or r, it is pronounced ch as in 
Charles. The analogy of the Mongol and Japanese 
languages shows that s is the true old sound. The 
Mongol has s and Ps, the latter of which is called c'h, 
but its value in comparative philology is simple s, as 
in c'hi, "thou," Manchu si, Greek av. The Mongol 
has no true /, the j in use being a modern corruption 
of d, as jirohe, " heart," the same as the Persian dil. 



172 



So jigahu, to " teach," to " point to," is the same as 
the Latin doceo, digitus, the English " teach," and 
"betoken," the German zeichnen, etc., and the Chinese 
chi or U, " to point," chi or dik, " straight." So the 
Tamil tagu, "to be just," and tagudi, "justice," have 
the same etymology. Nor has the Mongol an sh 
proper, the initial having this orthography being 
modified from si. The same occurs in Japanese, 
where si is pronounced like shi, and tsi like chi. Thus 
in Mongol c'hagan, " white," seems to be connected 
with c'hasa, " snow," but c'hasa is evidently connected 
with the Chinese sit, " snow," and snow is a substance 
which in all countries where the winter is cold, origi- 
nates adjectives indicating whiteness. The Manchu 
shanggien, " white," is apparently formed from the 
Mongol by dropping the initial t. After the letter 
sh had been thus introduced many Chinese words 
were perhaps borrowed, such as shu'min and shum, 
"deep," Chinese shim. I suppose, therefore, that the 
Tamil s, though sometimes pronounced ch, is really the 
s of Tartary and Japan. 

The three r's, two /'s, and three n's of Tamil reveal 
the existence of a principle that has been at work 
among all the Indian populations since the intrusion 
of the dominant Arian element. The Sanscrit lan- 
guage has among the vowels a long and short r and 
I, and an r and I at the bottom of the cerebral and 
dental t series, respectively. The sister language, 



ABUNDANCE OF LIQUIDS. 173 

Zend, has one r and no /; and hence it may be 
concluded that this rich development of r and / took 
place in Sanscrit after the migration to India. It 
was, therefore, probably the effect of climate, for it 
characterizes the Dravidian languages as it does those 
of Sanscrit origin. Hot and moist climates induce 
luxury and softness of manners. The vowels and 
liquids then become extensively subdivided, while 
letters which in their enunciation require decision and 
physical energy suffer in proportion. The remarkable 
completeness of the Sanscrit alphabet, wanting only / 
among the consonants, and eu and u among the vowels, 
was due to the Arian race having first been located in 
a temperate region and afterwards migrating to a hot 
and moist one. 

That the Tamil and other Dravidian languages have, 
when compared with the Sanscrit, so poor an alphabet, 
is partly due to the fact, that the Turanian stock from 
which they sprang was itself poor. To this should 
be added, that deterioration had followed on their 
separation from it. A softening process deprived 
Dravidian speech of much of the pith and force which 
belonged to it at an earlier stage, when it was one 
with the Mongol and Japanese. Proof of this will 
now be given by adducing the deficiencies of the 
Tamil syllable. 

The syllable admits in modern Chinese of a prefixed 
t before the initials s and sh. This liberty is also 



174 



used in Mongol, and t becomes ts before i and u in 
Japanese. In Tamil, s becomes occasionally ch. In 
old Chinese the six final consonants by which a 
syllable could be closed were g f d, b; ng, n, and m. In 
Mongol the same rule prevails. The Japanese lan- 
guage restricts this law, and takes pleasure in changing 
the old monosyllable into a dissyllable. The Mongol 
went farther and added s, I, r, to the number of finals 
by which their syllables might be closed. The Tamil 
people are more like the Japanese than the Mongols in 
this respect, and give their syllables no consonantal 
letters with which to close them, except n, m, I, and r. 
The Telugu and Kannada languages know no finals to 
their syllables but the vowels, and they thus assume 
in regard to this feature a completely Polynesian 
aspect: 

The following examples of derivation in the Tamil 
language will at the same time show that the roots 
are found alike in the Chinese and in the European 
vocabulary. They have been chosen within the space 
of a very few pages in Dr. Winslow's Tamil Dictionary, 
and in a part where the identity of words is very easily 
detected, because the features of family resemblance 
have not been much defaced by the processes of secular 
corruption. In Chinese words three sounds are some- 
times given, the first modern, the second that of the 
dictionaries a.d. 500, the third that of the era (ac- 
cording to tradition) of the formation of the phonetic 



DERIVATION IN TAMIL. 175 

characters, B.C. 2000. The Japanese h is replaced by 
its ancient equivalent b. 

Padi, " step of a ladder," padam, " foot," " road,' ? 
" metrical foot." Chinese pu, " step," bo, bod. Indo- 
European pada, foot, pes, passus, pace. The Tamil here 
uses as suffixes of derivation i, am. 

Para, " spread," " be diffused," paravu, " lay open," 
" spread," parambu, " to spread," " become diffused," 
" multiply." Japanese fure, bure, " publish," " pro- 
mulgate," haru, baru, "spread over," "extend," "dis- 
play." Chinese pei, bi, bid, " coverlid," " to spread 
over," "extend to." Indo-European bed, spread, pando, 
pateo, broad, breit. Tamil derivative syllables a, avu, 
ambu. 

Padar, " widen," " ramify," " extend," " pass," pa- 
dam, " path," i.e., " that by which we pass " or " pro- 
ceed," padavi, "road." Mongol badarahu, "to extend," 
badaral, "extension." Chinese fa, bat, "to expand," 
"go forth." Indo-European forth, path. Russian raz- 
brasivat, razbrosat, to " dissipate," " extend." Tamil 
derivative syllables ar, am, am. 

Paru, " to be increased," parambu, " to multiply," 
pattu, "fold." Betel nut in folds for guests. Hurdles 
in folds for folding cattle. Cloth either as spread 
or as folded. A " plait " or "doubling" of cloth. 
Japanese hida, bida, "fold," " plait," fata, buta, "two." 
Chinese pei, bi, bit, " double," " add as much again." 
Indo-European both, German beide, fold, plait, to boot, 



176 china's place in philology. 

i.e., " add," freebooter, i.e., "one who wanders freely." 
(Here the sense of spreading is approached.) 

Pari, "to part," "separate," piri, "to part from," 
" separate," pddi, " part," " proportion," pddida, " dis- 
tribute," pddu, " sharing," pdtti, " division." Mongol 
buda, " group." Japanese hedate, bedate, " to separate 
from." Chinese,^, bit, "to separate," " other," fen, 
pun, " divide," pic, bu, bud, " division," " class," fen, 
bun, "a division." Indo-European pars, separo, Sans- 
crit bheda, "dividing," bhedita, "divided," bhinna, 
"separated." 

Padu, "to suffer," "to be acted on," "to perish," 
" die in battle." This word forms a passive when 
joined to the infinitive of active verbs. Japanese hate, 
bate, " end, to end," batashi, " finish." Mongol barahu, 
"finish." Chinese j%r, ba, bat, "to end," pel, bi, bit, 
"to be acted on " ; used as a sign of the passive, as in 
pei sha, " was killed," pai, " destroy," " be destroyed," 
ba, bad-, fa, "strike," "put down," "make to fall," 
bat. Indo-European bout, butt, patior, passus, beat, 
batuo. 

Pari, "burden," "load," "speed," pari, "to be 
heavy," "to feel heavy," "to be thick." Mongol 
bidugun, "thick," bidu gulig, "thickness." Chinese/^, 
bu, bud, "burden," "to bear.'' Indo-European bear, 
fero, (j)ep(o, porto, bahren, ffapvs, /3apo?, berden, speed, 
a7rev8a). 

Padam, "boiled rice," "eating," pddeyam, "pro- 



EXAMPLES OF DERIVATIVES IN TAMIL. 177 

visions for a journey." Mongol bada, "food." Manchu 
but'a, "cooked rice." Chinese fan, ban, "cooked rice," 
"food." Indo-European food, feed, fodder, petayu 
(Russian " nourish"), bwyd (Welsh " food "). 

Padiv { y,, " stooping," " lying near the ground," pa- 
dukkam, " servility." Manchu budun, " vile." Mongol 
beg en or bog en, "low" (g is apparently part of the 
suffix, and d is probably dropped). Japanese hikui, 
bikui, " low." Chinese pel, pi, pid, " low." Indo- 
European bottom, base, fidOo?. 

Pal, "many," palam, "force," "strength," "fruit," 
" result," " profit," palan, " profit," " fruit." Japanese 
batashta, " to result," hodoshi, bodosi, " to give," 
" bestow." Mongol butogehu, " fulfil." Chinese pei, pi, 
pid, "add to," "give," "annex to," "benefit," "assist." 
Indo-European fructus, fruit, fortis, abundo. 

Paneiya, " old," " decayed," paneimei, " oldness," 
" decay." Japanese furui, burui, " old." Chinese pai, 
ba, bad, " to decay," " destroy," " decayed," fa, bad, 
" wearied," " worn out." Indo-European fatigatus, 
fetid, vraXaios, beaten (in the sense of " weary "). 

Para, " fly," " move quickly," " be dispersed." 
Japanese hashiri, basiri, " flee," " move fast." Chinese 
fei, pi, pid, " fly," po, pad, " scatter," " winnow." 
Indo-European aireipca, ireTavvviMt, bird, fly, Flugel, 
7T€T6ivd, flee, fast. 

Padi, " resemblance," polu, " to be like," poll, " like- 
ness." Mongol buduPu, "likeness." Chinese pi, pe, 

12 



178 china's place in philology. 

ped, " compare." Russian podobie, " resemblance/' 
upodobknie, " comparison." 

These, and many other words like them in form, 
appear to have sprung from a very few roots, such 
as bad, bid, bud, which may easily have originated in 
the imitation of natural sounds. These sounds would 
be, for example : the noise of the foot in stepping, 
of a bird beginning to fly, of striking with a hatchet, 
or of a heavy object falling to the ground. The many 
sharp sounds heard in nature favour the opinion that 
closed syllables were common in the primeval syllabary. 
It is not likely that our first forefathers ended their 
words with vowels exclusively. 

The preceding examples show that a close com- 
parison of the vocabularies of the Turanian languages 
with the Chinese old vocabulary is likely to be most 
fruitful in results, Philology, indeed, has at hand no 
vocabulary of roots so complete and so ancient in form 
as that found in the Chinese dictionary. 

Among the additions to the root in Tamil are m and 
/, marking substantives, as kddam, "killing," kddal, 
" act of killing. ,, The m reminds us of the Semitic 
m, which is a demonstrative root, and is used to form 
participial substantives from verbs and also to mark 
the participle. The suffix / is the same with the 
Mongol suffix for verbal nouns. For instance, the 
Mongols say c'hidal, " strength," " ability," derived 
from c'hidahUf "to be able," by adding I. Chinese 



COMPOUNDS. 179 

t'sai, "power," "riches," ze, zat. The root is also 
found in trie Sanscrit sattva, "vigour," "power," and 
sattra, "wealth," "sacrifice" (Chinese tsi, tse, sat, 
" sacrifice "). 

The vowels i and u, added to the root, are sounds, 
and nothing more. Thus, parru is " a grasp " and 
" to grasp." The same is true in Japanese. They 
are therefore used merely to make a second syllable, 
by giving a vowel to the final consonant of the root 
They show that language has an inherent tendency to 
become polysyllabic. 

The Tamil, like the Japanese, but more freely, 
makes compounds by annexing words to each other. 
Thus, from tarisi, " to see," are formed tarisanam, 
"vision," and sandarisanam, "the capacity to see all 
things in common," where the first syllable is the 
root sam, " all," " even," " common," Latin simul, 
English same, Greek dfia, Chinese t'sam, " equal," 
Tamul samam, " evenness," " sameness." From palam, 
" strength," is formed samabalam, " equal power." It 
is only in the Indo-European languages that we find 
a parallel development of compounds. But the pre- 
positions irapd, pro, super, etc., which make so promi- 
nent a figure as prefixes to words in Greek and Latin 
dictionaries, are not able to take the same position in 
any Turanian language, because their nature as verbs 
requires them to be placed last. This exception being 
made, there can be no doubt that the transition from 



180 china's place in philology. 

the Turanian languages to the Indo-European system 
is, in regard to the formation of compounds, most 
easily made from the Dravidian branch. The Turkish 
and Mongol in regard to this feature afford no foot- 
hold for comparison, for in those languages the loose 
compounds which exist cannot be regarded as single 
words. The intervention of possessive and other par- 
ticles prevents the fusion of the two words into one. 

A glance at the verb will enable us to judge of the 
relation held by the three branches of the Turanian 
family to each other. 

The essential identity of the verb and noun is 
plainly taught by the Chinese and Turanian systems 
of languages. This identity is not in idea, but in 
sound. The framers of language did not confound 
action and thing, but they gave them the same name. 
Thus, dong in many languages expresses the sound of a 
bell. So anything that gives a ringing even sound, 
as also the sound itself, and any action that causes it, 
would be called dong. The Chinese say ta, old form 
tang, "to strike," chung, old form tang, "bell," dung, 
"copper." Of the Dravidian roots, Caldwell says, as 
quoted by F. Miiller, l " When case-signs are attached 
to a root, or when without the addition of case-signs, 
it is used as the nominative to a verb, it is regarded 
as a noun: the same root becomes a verb without 
any internal change or formative addition, when the 
1 Eeise der Novara. Linguistischer Theil, p. 95. 



THE VERB. 181 

signs of tense and the pronouns, or their terminal 
fragments, are suffixed to it." 

Thus, in Tamil occurs kuttu, a word which means 
either i ( union " or " to join." Changing the vowel, 
we meet with kattu, "a tie " and " to tie," " a 
fabrication " and " to fabricate," " a bundle " and " to 
bind." The Chinese kit means, in the same twofold 
manner, " a v tie " or " to tie," " to coagulate," " to 
solidify." But if we observe the same root in Mongol 
and in the Indo-European languages, a difference is 
perceptible. The Mongols say hada for "a rock," 
hat'ago, for the adjective " hard," hat'aho, for the 
neuter verb " to harden," and hadaho, " to make fast " 
(by hammering), hat'agaho, "to dry," "to harden," 
in a causative or transitive sense. The Japanese, like 
the Mongol, has advanced beyond the stage when 
the verb and noun were one. Thus, we find in the 
Japanese vocabulary katai, " hard," katameru, " con- 
geal," "harden," katasa, "hardness," kataku, "hard" 
(the same with the Mongol), katamaru, " become 
hardened," kata, "a mould," "shape," katatsi, "figure." 
Among the suffixes here observable, i and ku serve for 
the adjective, sa and a for the noun, maru for the verb 
in a passive or increscent sense, meru for the verb in a 
neuter or transitive sense. The naked root does not 
appear, nor do the verb and noun meet in any one 
form. 

Hence it may be concluded that the Tamil and 



182 china's place in philology. 

Chinese types of language are both in this respect 
older than the Japanese and Mongol, while the 
English combination of the noun and verb in one 
form as " a tie," and " to tie," is a return to primeval 
usage after the language had been temporarily subject 
to the laws of derivation which reigned in the 
Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin. 

The Sanscrit vocabulary contains the forms kathora, 
"hard," kathoratd, "hardness," kathina, "hard," kathin- 
aid, "hardness," kdtha, "rock," kathina, "hardness," 
kddambara, " the skim of coagulated milk," kitaka, 
" harsh," Ml, to " bind," " fasten," or " nail " (/ for d), 
kila, " a nail," " pin " (Mongol hadagaso, " a nail* "), 
kuta, " a hammer." To these correspond the English 
hard, hardness, harden, where an r has crept in before 
the final letter. 

It was this system of terminations, beginning in 
the Turanian languages and culminating in the 
Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin, that obscured the original 
identity of the verb, noun, and adjective, separated 
with precision the parts of speech, and thus gave 
origin to Indo-European grammar in its broadest 
aspect. This vast superstructure of derivatives raised 
on the original basis of the monosyllabic roots is now, 
and has been for two thousand years, gradually crumb- 
ling away. The contrast between the Anglo-Saxon 
and the English in regard to the extent of the prin- 
ciple of derivative suffixes is a measure of the change 



THE VERB. 183 

steadily advancing in the whole Indo-European world. 
If the human race should last long enough, we might 
expect, supposing that the present law of decay 
continues, to find the whole superimposed system of 
derivative forms swept away from language, leaving 
behind only the primeval vocabulary of monosyllabic 
roots. But the working of other laws, and the in- 
satiable craving of civilization for new words, will 
prevent this. 

The verb in Tamil appears as transitive, neuter, 
causative, passive, and negative. A neuter becomes 
transitive by doubling the final consonant of the root. 
Thus pogu, "to go away," becomes pokku, " to drive 
away." Professor F. Miiller has noticed that this is a 
Semitic peculiarity. I would add that it should be 
traced to the influence of the Semitic form of speech 
on the Turanian at an ancient period, when they were 
geographically contiguous, or mixed in one older 
system. In Hebrew the doubling of a consonant is 
intensitive or causative. The syllables pi, hi, and m are 
appended in Tamil to make causal verbs out of 
transitives. Thus my, "do," the Chinese tso, in the 
old form sak, "do," or "make," when pronounced 
seyvi, means "cause to do." From hal, "to learn," and 
kan, " to see," are formed karpi, " to teach," and kdnbi, 
"to show," i.e., "cause to see." The Mongol inserts 
the syllables ga and gol, to impart to verbs a trans- 
itive or causative sense. This may be the Chinese 



184 china's place in philology. 

causative verb kiau, old form ko. The Japanese causa- 
tive suffix is se. Thus from miru, "see," and naru, 
"be/' are formed miser u, " cause to see," nasi, "make to 
be." This syllabic addition reminds us of the Chinese 
causative verb shi. In passing from Chinese to the 
Turanian languages, as before remarked, sh becomes s. 
The causative syllable in the Telugu and Kannada 
divisions of the Dravidian branch is 8U, which may 
be referred to the same origin as the Japanese. The 
Turks insert al or ar, to give the sense of "coming 
into the state of," and add d or t to add the causative 
signification, as kararmak, "to become black," karart- 
mak, "'to cause to become black." Here mak is the sign 
of the infinitive. The Sanscrit causal p, inserted before 
the causal suffix aya, as in the example given by Bopp, 
sthapayami, " I make to stand," may be referred to 
the Tamil causative p for a probable origin. 1 The 
great philologist just mentioned derives the c of doceo, 
" to teach," from the Sanscrit causal p, and finds the 
root in disco, ehdrjv and BiSdaKco. In Chinese we have 
the roots ti, " to know," in Mandarin ch'i, and dik, 
"to lead," tok, "to superintend," to, "lord." These 
words will furnish a natural and probable etymology 
for doceo, dux, ScSda/cco, the Persian ddnem, " I know," 
and other connected words. Bopp derives the p in 
rapio, "to snatch," from the same Sanscrit causal p, 

1 The Manchu, also a Turanian language, has bu for a causative syllable, 
cholimbi, "carve," choHibumbi, "cause to carve." 



THE PASSIVE. 185 

"in case rapio corresponds to the Sanscrit rdpdydmi, 
' I make to give/ of which the root is rd, ' give/ 
formed from dd, ' give/ by a weakening of the d." 
When we have the word rob, " to plunder," in English 
and German, it seems to be useless to seek for any- 
other origin for the Latin rapio than the root rab or 
lab, "to take with the hand," "to take violently," "to 
receive/' etc. ; in Chinese nip, " take with the fingers," 
nap, " to take/' " bring," in Mandarin nie and na. x 

In the eastern Asiatic languages the passive is a 
derivative verb. Thus, in Tamil the suffix padu gives 
to verbs a passive sense. This is the same word with 
the Latin patior, " to suffer," and the Chinese bad, in 
Mandarin pel, which from the original meaning " to 
cover," "to spread," "reach to," etc., has taken the 
sense of " being acted upon," and so come to be used 
as a passive auxiliary. As such it is quite common in 
the modern speech of the country. In some dialects, 
as at Shanghai, its tone (4 or 8) indicates that a final 
d has been lost. 2 The Japanese changes final i to e to 
form a passive. Thus, umi, " to produce," becomes 
ume, "to be produced," "to be born"; yomi, "to read " 
(Chinese niem), becomes yome, "to be read." The 

1 The original root for the causative p, Manchu bu, I think is the 
Chinese bad or pet, "to give," for in the Shanghai dialect peh for pet is 
used in a causative sense. Edkins's Shanghai Grammar, p. 140, Peh la 
ngu ¥iuh kwen sz, " he caused me to suffer a lawsuit." 

3 The lost letter might be d or b, but the phonetic shows it to have 
been d. 



186 china's place in philology. 

Tungusian adds wum to the active form. Here m is a 
personal ending, and tvu is the addition, which may- 
be the verb ui, in Mongol meaning " to do," and in 
Chinese " to do " and " to be." The Mongol passive 
is formed by inserting da or de. The Turks insert il. 
Thus, in Tungusian silkim, " wash," silkiwum, " to be 
washed"; in Mongol abho, "take," abdaho, "be taken"; 
in Turkish deugurum, "strike," deugilurum, "be struck"; 
in Tamil adikkappadu, " to be struck"; in Mongol 
t'ugsedehu, " to be struck." l 

The Turanian verbs are negatived by the insertion 
or addition of the negative roots al, ne, ak, ma, com- 
mon in Semitic and European languages. The Tamil 
inserts a, as do the other Dravidian dialects. Its full 
form, says Caldwell, as quoted by F. Miiller, is al. 
The Telugu simply changes u to a, as in pampu, " to 
send," pampa, "not to send." The Tamil allows the 
usual terminations to follow. Seygindadu, " it makes," 
seyyddu, "it does not make." This negative may be 
identified with the Hebrew Stf al, "not." The 
Japanese negative element, says Hoffmann, is the sound 
n. From siri, "to know," is formed siranai, "I do 
not know." From ake, " to open," is formed akenu, 
" not to open." From yuki, " to go," are formed yuku 
na or na yuki so, "do not go." This negative may 

1 The root dig, dug, "strike," occurring in three Turanian languages, 
is in Chinese tang; in English, with prefix s and insertion of r, strike; in 
Hebrew yj?ri "he struck," pjTJ "beat small' 



NEGATION. 



187 



be identified with the Latin non, ne. The Manchu 
negative is ak'o, " not," as in ak'o oho, " I have it not," 
ak'uc'hi, " if it is not," ak'ungge ak'o, " nothing is 
wanting," ak'ungge, " it is not." The Mongol ugei is 
the same word with the aspirate omitted. In the 
eastern Mongol w is inserted in this word, as in bada 
idesen ugwei, "I have not eaten food." Here bada is 
the English food, 1 ide the English eat, 2 and ugwei the 
Greek ovk and ov. It is marvellous that the roving 
inhabitants of the Tartar plains should be daily using 
words so familiar to the inhabitants of European coun- 
tries, but it is not the less true. These three negative 
roots, a, ne, ovk, have absolutely no representative in 
Chinese. Hence they must be regarded as of Semitic 
and Turanian origin, and the introduction of the 
last two into the Indo-European languages must be 
attributed to the influence of ancient union, or mutual 
influence and juxtaposition of the races. 

It is otherwise with the remainder of the negatives 
in the Turanian languages. They are chiefly words 
identical with Chinese negatives. Thus, the Chinese 
wu or mut, " do not," is in Mongol bu, as in bu bic'hi, 
" do not write," bu oro, " do not enter." The Turkish 
uses ma, as in olmah, " do not be," olmaz, " he is not." 

1 Compare the Russian pitat, "to feed," German fiittern ; Russian 
pishc'ha, "food," German futter, English fodder. 

2 Compare the Sanscrit anna, "food," ad, "eat," Latin edo, Greek 
iardlw, German essen, Russian yest, Greek eSw. 



188 china's place in philology. 

The Tibetan has ma, mi, "not." The Chinese denial 
of existence is expressed by mo, mong, in Mandarin 
icu and mei yeu. The Greek (jltj, in /jlt) jevocro, " let it 
not be," is evidently connected with the same root. 
The two Chinese words are probably one in origin. 
In prohibitions they preferred the final t or d. In the 
denial of existence they chose the final ng. 1 

Another Chinese root is pi, put, in Mandarin fei, pu, 
used to express contradiction, as in pu hau, " it is not 
good," pu lai, " he does not come." The Mongols say, 
boso, "it is not so," in the eastern dialect, bishi. In 
Europe this root appears in the Latin pereo and perch, 
perfidus and perjuria, in all which the prefix per has the 
sense of destruction or badness. It is also our own 
word bad. As a transitive verb it is in Chinese " to 
destroy " (fei) ; as a neuter, it is the substantive verb 
negatived; as an adjective, it denotes moral badness 
(fei lui, "bad people") ; as an adverb, it is pu, "not." 

The formation of the tenses preceded that of the 
personal endings. Thus, in the Tamil the form sey- 
gind-en, " I do," has for the mark of present time (gir) 
gind, and for the first person singular en. The first 
person singular in the aorist tense is sey-v-en, " I did." 
The perfect is sey-d-en, " I have done." In the older 
Turanian types, represented by dialects bordering on 
China, the personal endings do not occur. Thus, in 

1 Mong, in Mandarin wang, is used for "to die" or "be destroyed." 
It is the Latin morior, Sanscrit mara, Persian mardan. 



TENSE FORMATION. 189 

the eastern Mongol, "I kill," "thou killest," "he kills," 
are expressed by hi alana, &hi alana, Pere alana, while 
in Buriat-Mongol, spoken on the shores of the Baikal 
Sea, alanap, alanas, alana are used, where p is hi, "I," 
and s is c'hi, " thou." 

The distinction of masculine, feminine, and neuter 
is found in the personal endings of all the Dravidian 
dialects. Thus, in Tamil the third person singular of 
the perfect indicative is, masculine sey-d-dn, feminine 
sey-d-dl, neuter sey-d-adu. This peculiarity, being 
unknown in the languages of Tartary and Siberia, is 
best referred for its origin to ancient juxtaposition 
with Semite or Indo-European races. If traces of 
Semite influence occur in Dravidian speech, it may 
have been from the neighbourhood of some early 
people of that descent in Persia. The Cushite settle- 
ments stretched eastward along the sea- coast from 
Arabia to the mouths of the Indus, 1 and the language 
of the Cushites differed but little from that of the 
Semites. In Coptic and other Hamitic languages the 
distinction of masculine and feminine is still found in 
the personal endings of verbs. 2 When it is also 
remembered what striking indications of Semite in- 

1 Compare the geographical names, Cutch, in the Gulf of Kutch, near 
Bombay; Gujerat; Katsh, the name of a Tibetan province; the Vale of 
" Cashmere," etc. 

2 Reise der Novara. Linguistischer Theil. In old Egyptian, t marked 
the feminine. A neuter gender was unknown to Semitic or Hamitic 
grammar. The Arians probably introduced this distinction into language. 



190 



fluence are observable in the Tibetan language, it 
seems fair to conclude tbat the races which occupied 
the Persian area immediately before the Arian, being 
partly Semite and partly Cushite, imparted Semite 
elements to the Dravidian languages. 

The Dravidian tense marks are, present gindu, giru, 
in Tamil ; ta, te, in Kannada ; chu, tu, in Telugu. 
Perfect t, d, and i. Future L Aorist b, v, pp. 

On the origin of the marks for the present no light 
is thrown by reference to the Turkish ar or ur, as in 
korkaricm, korkarsen, korkar, "I fear," "thou fearest," 
"he fears," where um and sen denote the first and 
second persons and kork is the root ; nor to the Mongol 
moi, na, namas, in bi abomoi, "I take," t l a abomoi, "you 
take,-" t'ere abomoi, " he takes," in the eastern collo- 
quial Mongol abana, and in old books abonam. 

The forms for past time are, on the other hand, 
remarkably similar to those found in the connected 
languages. The Turkish preterite inserts d, as in 
•korkdum, "I have feared," where m is the first pro- 
noun — our own me. The Mongol gerunds have among 
them a form in d, which may easily have originated the 
indicative preterite in d. For example, in the eastern 
Mongol, noyin moran onad jidan beriji iheu hashigaran 
oroba, " the chief, mounted on his horse, and holding 
his spear, entered his great court-yard. , ' ) Noyin is 
"any chief." Moran is the second accusative of mori, 
"horse," and as such bears a possessive signification. 



TURANIAN GERUNDS. 191 

Onihu is "to ride." Its gerunds are onad, onaman, 
onaj'i, which may be used in succession in a sentence 
composed of several clauses like the preceding. Jidan 
is the second accusative of jid, "spear/' Berihu is 
"to grasp with the hand," — the Chinese pa. Iheu, 
" great, " b is the Japanese okii, " great." Hashigar is 
" a palisaded enclosure." Oroba is the past indicative 
of orohu, " to enter." The form in d resembles our 
English participial form in ed, which agrees with the 
past tense indicative, as in, "he was mounted on his 
own horse," or, " he mounted his own horse." The 
Latin equitatus, or equo vectm, " mounted on a horse," 
are also equivalent. So is the Sanscrit participle in 
ta, as patita, " fallen," from pat, " fall." 

The third Mongol gerund in ji appears to be the 
same wide- spread form disguised by phonetic change, 
for the Mongol/ has d for its etymological equivalent. 

The Japanese gerund in te nearly agrees in form 
and use with the Mongol. I take an example from 
Hoffmann: Te wo aghetefito wo manekiyubu, "elevating 
his hand, he calls the people by signs." Te is " hand." 
Wo is the accusative case suffix. Aghete is the gerund 
of aghe, "lift up," the Chinese gu or kit, and Greek 
iyelpco. The Turanian prefixed vowel has, if this 
identification be correct, been retained by the Greeks 
from that time in hoar antiquity when the forefathers 
of the Japanese were next-door neighbours to the 
world-famous Hellenes. Fito wo is " man " or " men," 



192 china's place in philology. 

in the accusative, and manehiyubu is a compound verb, 
consisting of maneki, " to beckon/ ' and yubu, " he 
calls." Hoffmann remarks that the suffix te means "at 
the time of," or " by means of," and is locative, modal, 
or instrumental. 1 The Japanese past tense takes the 
suffix ta, as in watakusiga mita, " I have seen," where 
watakusiga means " I," and has the honour perhaps of 
being the longest word in the world in use for that 
pronoun. Mita is the past of mi, "see," connected 
with the Chinese mok, " eye." I suppose that, as in 
English, the past tense is of later formation than the 
gerund form and founded upon it. So in Greek, 
the participle Xelircov preceded the imperfect or aorist 
eXnrov, and both are later than the Mongol infinitive 
or participle in n, with which they are connected by a 
distant relationship. So also eftovkevaa, " I coun- 
selled," and €(3ov\ev97]v, " I was advised," may be 
viewed as more recent forms, founded on the older 
jSovXevaas and fiovXevOel?. The Indo-European past 
tense in s, d, and n, is based on the participle, and 
this again upon the Turanian gerund. The Turanian 
intellect nominalizes the verb. Every verb is looked 
at as a substantive, and hence those parts of the 
conjugation which were first formed approach in their 
nature to the substantive. The Turanian in describing 
a succession of events gave to his verbs the forms of 
gerunds, and added to them, when needed, the case 
1 Grammaire Japonaise, p. 177. 



PAST TENSE. 193 

suffixes. Thus, each clause was a substantive. Yet, 
by the nature of the case, they retained a verbal 
energy. Time was an inherent element which was 
inseparable. The union of verb and noun in one word 
thus originated the participle of both the Turanian 
and Indo-European families. Then from this were 
derived certain indicative forms denoting past time. 

The origin of the past tense and past participle in 
d may be looked for, perhaps, in the ancient Chinese 
pronoun ti, "him," Mandarin chi. This word is used 
as a preposition, "to a place," and as a possessive 
particle. I take an example from M. Julien's Syntaxe 
Nouvelle de la Langue Chinoise : Kwo chi kiun, " the 
kingdom's prince." The Mongol use of the suffix de 
in the sense of "towards a place " is parallel. In the 
dialects of China the same word is used in the same 
way as the Mongol gerund. Tsu ts'i ping, tang tsang 
k l i tse, 1 " he has become a soldier and gone to fight." 
Tsu is to " do," " be," " act as," old form sale, in Tamil 
sey, " do." Ts'i is the common sign of the possessive, 
here used as a mark of the gerund. Ping is " soldier." 
Tang tsang is a compound verb, "to fight." K'i is 
" to go," and is put in the past by the last word tse, 
a particle fixing past time. In M. Julien's examples 
of the use of chi 2 may be seen, Wei shu sheng chi, 
" only millet grows," said of the barbarians of 
Tartary, whose country will not grow rice or wheat. 
1 Shanghai Grammar, § 252. 2 Syntaxe Nouvelle, p. 75. 

13 



194 china's place in philology. 

At present the northern boundary of wheat cultivation 
passes at about 200 miles to the north of Peking. 
The word chi is here, says M. Julien, without signifi- 
cation. But may there not be here the commencement 
of a gerund formation like that seen in compounds 
formed with the word cho in Mandarin ? Thus, in 
Wo chan cho ti sh'i heu, "while I was standing/' 
wo is " I." Chan is " stand." Cho makes it a 
gerund. Ti is the possessive sign to the verb-noun, 
chan cho. Shi heu is a compound noun meaning 
"hour," "time." Looking at the use of chi in this 
way, and keeping in mind the Shanghai usage above 
adduced, the history of the gerund formation in d 
would become clear. The root ti appears in old 
Chinese literature, (1) with the meanings " this," 
"him," "towards," "go towards"; (2) with the pos- 
sessive sense, thus becoming a mere auxiliary particle ; 
(3) with a gerund-like signification, which comes out 
more distinctly in the dialects. 1 

The other Dravidian perfect in i and the aorist in 
b or v are interesting from their striking resemblance 
to the Latin perfect in ui, vi, and imperfect in bam. 
In Mongol the ordinary past tense ends in ba when 
the root has a or o, and beu when the root has e or i, 
e.g., yababa, " he went," helebeu, " he said." The 

1 If this is not the true origin of the Mongol gerund in d and ju, it 
may be possible to find it in the Chinese Mandarin gerund cho, meaning 
originally "to hit the mark," "strike," "take fire," etc. 



CONDITIONAL TENSE. 195 

form in ba differs in nothing from the Latin imperfect, 
except that the Latin has proceeded to affix the mark 
of the personal pronoun, a stage which the older 
Mongol dialects have not reached. The Buriat- 
Mongols, however, have added b, s, t, to the three 
persons, thus making the identification complete. The 
Turkish and Persian languages, which have always 
been neighbours, both have m for the first person, 
as in the Persian imperfect budam, budi, bud, " I was," 
" thou wast," " he was," corresponding in Turkish to 
boldim, boldung, boldi. The Manchus also have a past 
tense in bi. In Japanese ba is used to serve as a suffix 
to the verb in a subordinate clause with the sense 
"when," or "as." This appears to be the same as 
the Mongol conditional suffix bel. Hoffmann gives the 
example : yama no ne kumo tsigiretaraba yagate fare, 
" should the clouds on the top of the mountain be 
dispersed, it becomes forthwith clear." Here no is the 
possessive, yama is " mountain," ne is " the summit," 
kumo is " cloud," tsigiretara is " disperse," yagate 
is "forthwith," and fare is "becomes clear." Ba is 
"should" or "if." 

As to the origin of ba and bel as conditional suffixes, 
or as signs of the imperfect indicative, there is perhaps 
nothing more probable than an ancient connexion with 
the Chinese pi, " to compare," and pei, " to give." 
The lost d of the latter of these words is recovered by 
comparing the Shanghai form peh for pet with the 



196 china's place in philology. 

Japanese hodokoshi, " to give" (N.B. Japanese h=p 
or b). The Japanese for "compare" is haiszru, "to 
match," " equal." The Chinese, as at Shanghai, use 
both words in compounds, as in sung peh la ngu, "present 
it to me," literally " present give to me " ; slang 
pi, "mutually compare." The Tamil has these words 
with or without an initial o. Thus, oppanei is "simile," 
"parable," pol, " like as," oppdri, " comparison," oppi, 
" give," poll or oppu, " likeness," " congruity," poke or 
oppic, " to be like," " resemble," oppumei, " similitude," 
oppiwi, "to give," "deliver." The Chinese has also 
the aspirated words p'i, " a comparison," p'ei, " to 
match," " correspond to," and p'i, " a match," where 
the root is in all cases pHt. In the Indo-European 
languages, the Russian has podobie, "resemblance," and 
upodoblenie, "comparison," where the prefixed u is 
curiously like the o in the Tamil forms. The English 
h&spair, and the Latin par, "equal," and comparo, "to 
compare." The Latin paro, " prepare," is the Chinese 
bid, "prepare," in Mandarin pei. In Chinese there 
are also other members of this numerous family, 
namely, pi, " he," and pit, " other," already adduced 
in a previous chapter. 

The explanation now proposed of the conditional 
and past tense suffix in b is, that its original meaning 
was " resemble " and " give," and that it was appended 
as a verb, in juxtaposition with a preceding verb, as 
in the modern eastern Mongol helji og, " speak for me/' 



PAST TENSE. 197 

where og means "give," and helji is the gerund of 
of helhn, "to speak." In Japanese and Mongol it 
became suppositive, and in Dravidian and Mongol 
preterite. In this state it passed over into the Latin, 
when tjje ancestors of the Romans were still in Asia, 
and in close connexion with the Turanians. "What is 
given is passed over to another. The very word past 
means transferred. 

Bopp has derived the Latin imperfect from the 
substantive verb fui, fore, but there is this objection 
to that view. The same suffix for the past tense 
exists in Dravidian languages which have not this 
substantive verb. The substantive verb in b first 
comes into view in the Tartar languages. The older 
branches of the Turanian family, the Japanese and 
Dravidian, have it not, nor do they contain any traces 
of the first personal pronoun in m, which is always 
found in the company of the substantive verb in b. 

The other Dravidian past in i — as in the Kannada 
aorist w and in the Tamil perfect in i — resembles 
the Latin ui and vi, in docui and amavi. Though 
it does not appear in the verb paradigms of the 
Mongol and Japanese languages, there is no diffi- 
culty in finding it in Chinese. It is the word i, 
" already." By analogy the old form of this word 
may have been i or wi. The Latin, Sanscrit, and 
Tamil v is the equivalent of the Chinese w. The 
word i, "already," is in Chinese used in the sense 



198 china's place in philology. 

"past and gone" (lower second tone), and perhaps 
originated the final particle i, for which it is sometimes 
used. 1 It differs in nothing from the third personal 
pronoun i, except in tone : a quality which, as has 
been shown, may be treated as having been non- 
existent 4,000 years ago. The same word also means 
"other," "different." Hence the fundamental idea 
of it is " difference," in space, in person, or in time. 
Combined with jen, " man," it means " a man of 
another country," " a barbarian " (lower first tone). 
It is a noun, "difference," in the sentence, ta t'ung 
siau i, " great similarity and small difference." In i ti, 
" a different place," it is an adjective (lower third 
tone). As an adverb it means "again," and as such 
it is the word pronounced in Mandarin yen, but in the 
Shanghai dialect yi (lower third tone). As the third 
personal pronoun (upper first tone), it is still used in 
the south-eastern dialects. 

The Dravidian future in i or e is evidently identical 
with the Mongol future in ya, and these forms together 
constitute an old type from which the . Latin future 
in e and ie, as in regam, reges, and audiam, audies, 
may have been formed. Its origin may perhaps be 
discovered in the Chinese yau, which takes the old 
form ok, "wish," "desire." It is a common sign 
of the future in Mandarin- Chinese. The k was early 

1 For an example of the use of i, " already," as a final particle in a 
predicative sentence, vide Syntaxe Nouvelle of M. Julien, p. 186. 



FUTURE TENSE. 199 

lost in the colloquial language. The corresponding 
western word is volo, wo lien, will, fiovkofjuai, and perhaps 
wish. 1 That this identification is not unlikely to 
be correct may be shown by reference to the other 
Chinese signs of the future. Tsiang (old form siung) 
contains in it the sya, which is the Sanscrit sign of the 
future, and the s of the Greek and Latin future, as in 
fiovkevaa), " I will advise," OovXexxKov, " about to give 
counsel," and ero, "I will be" (r for s). Another 
sign of the future in Chinese is pit, in Mandarin pi. 
It means "certainty," " certainly." " It will certainly 
be so." The word is the same with the Latin fides, 
the Greek ttigtis, and the Hebrew Plp^l bata, "he 
trusted." This I suppose to be the source of the 
Latin future in bo, bis, bit, where bi marks the tense 
and o, s, t, the person, as in amabo, " I shall love." 
This affords a more natural explanation of the future 
tense formation than to derive it in the manner of 
Bopp from the substantive verb, fuisse, futurus, etc. 
The Latin future in r, as ero, amavero, etc., is coin- 
cident in a curious way with the Manchu future in 
ra, re, which again strikingly resembles the Mongol 
supine in ra, re. A supine is a sort of infinitive put 
in future time, and hence in English the supine and 
the infinitive are not distinguished. The Mongols use 

1 Compare wash, in Chinese og, Mongol ogahu. Sh is a western 
equivalent for the old Chinese final g or k. In German, the inserted n 
in wunschen, "to wish," causes a difficulty in the identification. 



200 china's place in philology. 

for the future both the present tense in moi or ne, 
and also the infinitive in hu. Thus, in Turanian gram- 
mar there is not a little mutual interchange between 
the present, the future, the supine, and the infinitive. 
Hence it should be regarded as open for consideration, 
whether (if yau, " wish," is not satisfactory) the 
Chinese substantive verb wet, " to be," " to do," and 
in the third tone "for," "for the sake of," may not 
be the source of the Mongol future in ya, and so of 
the Dravidian and Latin forms already adduced. This 
verb exists in Mongol in title, " an act," and uiledhu, 
" to do " ; and is probably the root of our western 
am, was, werden, est, esse, Sanscrit asti, Tamil iru, 
" to be," Japanese iru, oru, " to be," " to dwell." 

The syntax of the Dravidian languages is similar 
to that of Tartar and Japanese speech. This will be 
understood from some examples of Tamil sentences, 
taken from Pope's Handbook. " Open the door " is 
hadavu tira, where Jcadavu is the Mongol egude (or in 
modern vernacular tide) and the Japanese kado, " door." 
The Chinese equivalent is gud, in Mandarin hu. The 
verb tira, " to open," stands last. So in Mongol ude 
nehe, " open the door," where nehe is the Greek avoiye. 

An example of the participial construction is the 
following : nan paditta pddam, " the lesson which I 
have learned." Nan is "I." Paditta is the past parti- 
ciple of padi, " to learn." Pddam is a verbal noun 
from the same root. Compare in Mongol hi omsihu ne 



DRAVID1AN SYNTAX. 201 

bichig, "the book I am reading.' ' Here omsihu is 
the infinitive or present participle "reading." It is 
in the possessive case, with ne to connect it with the 
following noun, " book." The past participle would 
be omsis { en, the other words remaining the same, and 
the meaning would be, " the books which I have 
read." The Chinese construction is similar, wo nien 
ti shu, " the book I am reading," or " which I have 
read." Here ti is the possessive (the verb nien, 
" read," being treated as a noun), and corresponds 
exactly to the Tamil td. 

The gerund construction will be perceived from 
the following instance : nadandu wandan, " walking 
he came," Mongol yabaju irebe. As j takes the place 
of d, the suffix ju is the same as the Tamil du and 
the Japanese te. The Chinese has the same order, 
tseu lai. The Indo-European languages invert the 
order, as in rj\0e, ^Xeircov, "he came seeing," rediit 
videns. Another example is kettu wasittu emidinan, 
"hearing, reading, he wrote." We should say, "he 
heard, read, and wrote." The Mongol would use one 
gerund in d, another in Ju, and then close with the 
indicative. 

There can be little doubt in regard to the pro- 
bability that the order of verbs in this Turanian 
construction rests on the older law ruling the order 
of verbs in Chinese, viz., that of succession in time. 
Hearing and reading precede writing. Walking pre- 



202 china's place in thilology. 

cedes coming. After the Turanian period, when 
an indicative was fully formed, it was possible to 
transgress this order. The rich Indo-European verb 
paradigms allowed of verbs being easily distinguished 
from each other, and language was no longer obliged, 
in the interest of clearness, to maintain a strict 
adherence to the order of time in the arrangement 
of her verbs. 

A more complex example from Mongol will illustrate 
the syntax of an expanded sentence : Pere mande helsen 
ne uge hi mart'asen, "the words that he said to me I 
have forgotten." T'ere is "he." Mande is "to me." 
Helsen is the past participle of helhu, "to speak." 
It has the possessive particle ne. Uge is words. Bi 
mart'asen is, "I have forgotten," the participle being 
used as an indicative in the colloquial language. In 
the book language it would receive after it the 
substantive verb in the indicative, to complete its 
expression. The construction, with the participle, is 
here seen performing the duty afterwards assigned to 
the relative pronoun. Helsen ne uge is. a relative 
clause. This was, in the early state of language, 
rendered possible by the fact, that the verb was 
viewed predominantly by the Turanian mind as a 
substantive ; and, as such, the office of finding room 
in a sentence for the relative clauses of western 
languages was considered to belong to it in one of 
its cases, viz., the possessive. But the more lively 



DRA VIDIAN SYNTAX. 203 

and energetic attributes of Semite language had in 
this respect greater influence on the Indo-European 
mind. The relative pronoun became the hinge on 
which the clauses of compound sentences could con- 
veniently turn, and the honour of accomplishing this 
duty was no longer assigned to the verb in the 
possessive. 



CHAPTER X. 



Third Division of the Turanian System. — Mongol as a Type of 
Tartar Languages. — An Old Turania in "Western Asia. — 
The Tartar Turanians come nearest to the Indo-Europeans. 
— System of Sound. — S and J for SS and D. — CH. for S. — 
Final NG dropped. — No F. — Seven Vowels. — Tone. — Acci- 
dence. — Substantive Verb and First Personal Pronoun. — 
Mongol Declension. — Pronouns. — The Mongol Verb Conju- 
gation. — A Mongol Verb. — Adverbial Suffixes. — Mongol 
Syntax. 



The great antiquity of the Mongolian type of 
language is manifest from its being found in several 
of its leading features in the Dravidian area. The 
historical events which have separated the branches 
of the great Turanian family furnish to us an approxi- 
mate chronology for the early stages of Turanian 
development. They point to a period anterior to the 
dispersion of the Indo-European families, when there 
was a primitive Turania in "Western Asia, from which 
the Japanese, Dravidian, and Tartar races proceeded. 
This time cannot be later than 2,000 years before 
the Christian era. At that time the Turanian verb 
had already its gerund, its past participle, and its 



TARTAR TURANIANS NEAREST TO INDO-EUROPEANS. 205 

three indicative tenses, a scale of case suffixes, several 
polysyllabic derivatives, and a common syntax. The 
suffixes were attached more loosely to the root than 
in the Indo-European system. It could not have 
been otherwise. For the Turanian type stands mid- 
way between the monosyllable of China and the richly 
elaborated polysyllabism of modern Europe. The 
difference between the agglutinated and inflected lan- 
guages is simply a question of lower and higher 
development. Linguistic types come one out of 
another, like orders in architecture, or ages in geology. 
The Indo-European system rests on the Semitic and 
Turanian systems, as they do on the Chinese, and as 
the Chinese does upon the primitive speech of Western 
Asia. 

The special interest of the Mongolian type consists 
in the fact that it comes nearest of all the three 
Turanian branches to the Indo-European. As Iran 
and Turan stood opposite to each other with hostile 
front, but in close contiguity, in ancient Persian 
remembrance, so Arian and Turanian speech, in many 
respects varying, stand to each other in the closest 
proximity. Their remarkable resemblance consists 
mainly in the formation of tenses by suffixes and in 
the extensive use of the same substantive verbs and 
personal pronouns. The verb " to be," the first 
personal pronoun in m or b, and the second and third 
in s or t t are as widely extended in Tartary as they are 



206 china's place in philology. 

in Europe, and they form an incontrovertible argument 
for common origin in language, race, and ideas. The 
same mental constitution which led the Tartar tribes 
to develope these roots in a declined and conjugated 
form, as the convenient expression of their ideas of 
existence and personality, led the Indo-European races 
to adopt them for the same use, instead of the more 
ancient substantive verbs and pronouns found in the 
Semitic, the Chinese, and the older Turanian lan- 
guages. That the Fins, Manchus, Mongols, and 
Turks should have borrowed this striking feature 
from the Indo-Europeans seems very improbable. It 
is worked thoroughly into the texture of their 
languages, and has nothing of the appearance of a 
foreign element. 

The Mongol and other Tartar languages have suf- 
fered less from phonetic decay than the Japanese and 
Dravidian branches of the same family, which have 
been exposed to the enervating effects of mild or hot 
climates. Hence there is found here a greater variety 
of sounds. Thus, the syllabary includes ng, n, m, g, 
d, b, I, r, s, among the finals. Of these, the last three 
are beyond the capacity of the Chinese vocal system, 
and they must be regarded as new. Thus, gol, "river," 
is formed by appending / to the Chinese root ga, in 
Mandarin ho. T'os, "opposite," is formed by dropping 
d in the old Chinese tod, " opposite," Mandarin tui, 
and adding s. The Tamil has edir, "to oppose." 



SYSTEM OF SOUND. 207 

The Indo-European languages allow any letter to end 
a syllable. Thus, in English, in addition to the nine 
consonants by which the Mongols can close syllables, 
we have /, v, k, t, p, ch, dj, z, sh, and the surd and 
sonant th. This is an unmistakable proof of the 
advance in freedom which language has now made. 
In the Mongolic stage it had added three finals to the 
Chinese and Himalaic phonology. In Sanscrit the 
finals are ng, n, m, h, t, d, s, r; differing very slightly 
from the Mongol. In Latin, when we have repeated 
haud, aut, in, hie, collis, clam, f rater, multiplex, we seem 
to have exhausted the capacities of the syllabary, and 
have only eight final consonants, d, t, n, k, s, m, r, x, 
of which the last, x, is a compound of two others, k 
and s. It is only in the Gothic and Sclavonic speech 
that language assumed the power of ending syllables 
with whatever consonants it pleased. Among these 
two, the Gothic has more freedom than the Sclavonic, 
and probably there is no language in the world that 
can compare in this respect with the English. This, 
however, is a distinction which has been acquired only 
after long and patient waiting. Language passed 
from the monosyllabic stage into the Turanian, from 
this to the early or southern Indo-European type, 
and from that to the later or northern type of the 
same family, before venturing on so great a leap. 
In Semitic phonology, on the other hand, language, 
with characteristic boldness, claimed the privilege at 



208 china's place in philology. 

a most ancient period of using as finals the sibilants 
and liquids, in addition to the mutes and nasals which 
were the finals of the primeval monosyllable. 

The unaspirated surds k, t, p, do not exist in Mongol 
or Manchu. These letters, as written by De Castren 
and Schmidt in their Grammars, represent aspirated 
surds. 1 They appear to have grown out of the sonants. 
Thus, t'ologai, " head," is in Chinese du, Mandarin 
t'eu. So also t'ola, "for," "on behalf of," is in Chinese 
t'ek and dak, in Mandarin t'i and tai, " instead of." 

The aspirated k has in the eastern Mongol, which 
is that spoken in the neighbourhood of Peking, become 
h, but k { is retained by the western and northern 
Mongols. 

The want of sh in Mongol, or at least its very 
sparing use, reminds the student of the Greek and Latin 
languages, which also lack this consonant. The coin- 
cidence can scarcely be regarded as accidental when 
the many remarkable resemblances in words between 
the Tartar languages and the Greek and Latin are 
kept in view. In Mongol k'umun or humun, "man," 
ere, "male," nehemoi, "to open," gar, "hand," dalai, 
"the sea," ebur, "horn," sara, "moon," nom, "sacred 
book," may be compared with homo, " man," fir, apprjv, 
" male," avouyw, " to open," x e W> " nan( l," 6aXaaaa, 

1 What the rule is in Turkish I cannot in Peking learn with certainty. 
The influence of Arabic and Persian may have led to a change of the 
aspirates to the pure surds. 



CHINESE B AND T REPRESENTED IN MONGOL BY J. 209 

" sea," ebur, " ivory/ ' aeXtfvr), " moon, ,, vo/jlos, "law." 
It is probable, therefore, that at some distant epoch a 
strong Turanian influence was exerted specially upon 
the Greek and Latin sections of the Indo-European 
family, subsequent to the separation of the Indo- 
Persian tribes from the common Aryan stock. 

The Chinese d and t, in Mandarin often ch, is in 
Mongol represented by j. Thus, ti, "to point to," 
di, "to -rule," "to cure," tok, "candle, "to shine," 
U, " decree," are in Mongol jahu, " to point," jasahn, 
"to rule," "correct," "cure,"/o/, "candle," "lamp," 
jerlig, " decree." In Greek and Latin the corre- 
sponding words are helKw^L, indico, rego, luceo, lux, lex. 
The law regulating these correspondences is, that 
words commencing with d and / in the Latin are 
found to agree in meaning with words whose initial 
is in modern Chinese ch, in Mongol j, and in old 
Chinese and Mongol d. As in the registered old 
sounds of the Chinese tonic dictionaries, dating from 
a.d. 400, some of these words are spelt with t, it may 
be reasoned that, as before stated, the old Chinese t 
probably came out of a more ancient d, for then it 
will not be surprising that I should be the Latin 
equivalent. The letters / and d have a known affinity 
for each other, and appear to be related, as son to 
mother. L has grown out of d, and so also has r, 
and thus has been caused an expansion of the alphabet 
in Sanscrit, in the Semitic family, and probably in 

14 



210 



CHINA S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



other ancient systems, 
following example. 



This will be seen by the 





PRIMITIVE IDEA, 


"TO POINT," DIK. 




CHINESE. 


SIGNIFICATION 


MONGOL. 


SANSCRIT. 


GREEK, LATIN. 


GER., ENG. 


ti, chi 


point 


jahu 




de'lKUVfil 


zeichnen. 


dik, ti 


lead 




daksha 


dexter 


token. 


di, da 


to rule 


jasahu 


dakshinat 


duco 




di, da 


to cure 


jasahu 




dux 




tok, tu 


oversee 


ejelehu 




digitus 




tu, chu 


lord 


ejen 


raj all 


rex 




le, li 


reason 






\6yos, lex 


reason. 


le,li 


to rule 




raj 


rego 


Eecht. 


ti 


decree 


jerlig 




decet 


law. 


ti 


will 






dticaios 




dik, chi 


straight 




riju 


rectus 


straight. 



A final k or g appears to have been lost from all 
the Chinese words where it is not marked in this 
list. In the Mongol ejen, "lord," n final is not part 
of the root. It disappears in declension, as in the 
plural ejid, and in the verb ejelehu, "to rule." In 
the Sanscrit daksha, "right (hand)," dakshindt, "south- 
ward," the double letter ksh has taken the place of k. 
The influence of religious ideas connected with the 
worship of light is perceptible in the east being 
regarded as the front and the south as the right. As 
in common roots the Indo-European r corresponds to 
the Chinese /, and the Indo-European I and d to the 
Chinese ch, the transition from d to I, observable in 



CH FOR S. FINAL NO DROPPED. 211 

the Chinese examples now given, must in all proba- 
bility have taken place at a time anterior to the 
separation of the races, and when the forefathers of 
the Chinese and Indo-Europeans still spoke one lan- 
guage. The primeval root dig became doubled by the 
change of d to I ; and while dig and lig both remained 
in Chinese, they originated in the Indo-European 
languages two sets of derived words, one set with the 
initials d or I, and the other with an initial r. In 
the English example straight, s is prefixed to the root 
and r is inserted after the initial t. The same root 
occurs in the Semitic languages with the sibilant pre- 
fixed, as in the Hebrew tsadik, " just," Arabic sadik. 

The Mongol aspirated ts or ch is found to be the 
Chinese s, sh, ts, or t ( s. Thus, the words c'hitgur, 
" a demon/' c'hasa, " snow," c'hohom, " accurately," 
" altogether," c'hag, " time," c'hilagon, " stone," are in 
Chinese sut, suy, " an evil spirit," " to exercise demo- 
niacal influence," sit, "snow," sik, "all," "thoroughly," 
shi, "time," "hour," shig, "stone." The equivalent 
in Indo-European is s or sh, as in c'hadaho, "to be 
satisfied," satis ; c'hilagon, " a stone," saccum ; ch'i, 
" thou," gv. The change from c'h to P, in c'hi, 
"thou," t f a f "ye," is parallel to the change from the 
Greek av to the Latin tu, " thou." 

The final ng of many Chinese words is dropped 
in Mongol. Thus, solaraho, "to become weak," to, 
" dragon," gerel, " light," are the Chinese silng. 



212 china's place in philology. 

''loosen," lung, "dragon/' keng, kwang, "light." The 
same tendency perhaps lurks in the Sanscrit Rdhu, 
" the demon of eclipses," and the Latin gloria, where 
an I has crept in after the initial. The Japanese and 
Tamil agree with the Mongol in dropping ng final, 
as in the Japanese dhari, "light." The word morning, 
Morgen, may be derived from the Chinese many, 
" bright," in Mandarin ming, through the Mongol 
maragaPa, " to-morrow," spelled in books managar. 
Other common forms are magaPara, maragasL They 
all mean "to-morrow." There is a verb manahu, "to 
shine," " ascend like the sun." 

The want of / in Mongol suggests a close connexion 
in this part of the Turanian sound system with the 
Sanscrit and Greek. Its place is supplied by b. 

The vowels are seven. They are called by Schmidt 
a, e, i, o, u, o, u. These values answer for the western 
and northern dialects ; but for the eastern Mongol, 
spoken in the neigbourhood of Peking, and which has 
not been described by the Russian and Grerman gram- 
marians, the values are rather a, e, i, 6, o, o and u or u. 
The fourth is the English o in fond, the fifth and sixth 
are divided by tone, and the sound is the English o in 
bone. The seventh is sometimes the English oo in 
tool, and sometimes the French u. The distinction 
between the fifth and sixth vowels cannot be described 
in any other way than as a variation in pitch, the 
fifth being lower than the sixth. The eastern' Mongol 



A MONGOL TONE. 213 

bears evident marks of being the most ancient of the 
dialects. It has no traces of the personal endings in 
the conjugation of verbs which occur in the Buriat 
dialect. This double tone, therefore, of the east 
Mongol syllabary must be regarded as a link of con- 
nexion with the Chinese and Himalaic systems. In 
learning the Chinese language the foreign student 
meets with the tones in the individual words to which 
they are attached. In the Tibetan, Siamese, and east 
Mongol, he meets with them in the syllabary. It is 
the same thing. If the Tibetan and Siamese were 
written with a separate character, half ideographic and 
half phonetic, for each word, the tone mark would be 
attached to the character in some such way as that in 
use among the Chinese. The difference between the 
fifth and sixth vowels of the Mongol syllabary would 
be expressed by saying that all words enunciated with 
the fifth vowel are in one tone class, and all words 
enunciated with the sixth vowel are in another. 

The existence of this double tone harmonizes with 
the view that the Mongol language rests on the 
Chinese as its basis. If a language came between 
them, it must have had a tone system, which would 
occupy a midway position between the Chinese system 
of tones and that of which the last vestiges are now 
slowly disappearing in the oldest and most easterly 
of the Mongol dialects. 

In the study of the Tartar languages, and the 



214 



dialects and languages of the same stock in European 
and Asiatic Russia, the occurrence of the substantive 
verb to be, and the first personal pronoun in m or b, 
is the most striking of all signs of kindred with the 
Indo-European family. The verb buhu, "to be," has 
a present boi, an imperfect bolai, a perfect buloge, a 
conditional bugesu, a potential boija and bubeja (?), 
three gerunds burun, bured (?), bugd'te le, and two 
infinitives buhu, buhwei. 

The root a, found in our auxiliary verb am, are, 
art, is also mixed with the auxiliary to be in a way 
resembling that to which we are accustomed in English. 
The parts are, a present amoi, an imperfect abai, a 
future aho or ayo, a conditional abasu, a potential 
amoija, a precative at'ogai, an imperative plural akt'on, 
two infinitives aho and ahwei, three gerunds aju, agad, 
and at'ala, a participle of agency ahc'hi, and a past 
participle ak'san. 

The first of these, bu, is the Sanscrit bhii, in the 
infinitive bhavitum, " to be," or " become " ; the Persian 
budan, "to be"; the English be; and in the Turkish 
bolmak, "become." In the Tartar languages the con- 
nexion of this root with the ordinary word for I, in 
Mongol bi, in Turkish ben, in eastern Turkish men, 
in Manchu bi, is manifest. The possessive of bi, " I," 
is manai, " mine." Thus, then, the English me in the 
accusative is the Mongol bi in the nominative, while 
the English possessive mine is the Mongol possessive 



SUBSTANTIVE VERB AND FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN. 215 

manai, in the book form minu. It appears then that 
the English me and be are the same word, and that 
that in which the Mongol differs, namely, the con- 
vertibility of b and m, is derived from some Turanian 
language, the parent of the present Tartar languages. 
In the Indo-European family, m is appropriated to the 
pronoun and b to the verb. Hence their identification 
is not at first view obvious. In the Tartar languages, 
where b is used for the verb, and m and b are both in 
free use for the pronoun, the identification does not 
admit of doubt. 

The question then arises, what is the origin of the 
verb to be and the personal pronoun me? We have 
in Mongol and Manchu the word beye, " body," in 
Japanese mi. This Japanese term signifies both "self" 
and "body." We have also in Chinese mut (Mandarin 
wu) meaning " a thing." The Sanscrit matra, " matter 
in the abstract," and Latin materies, are by some derived 
from the word meaning "mother," in Sanscrit mata, 
in Latin mater. Further, we have in Mongol mun y 
" it is so," a strong affirmative, and in Hebrew amin, 
" certain." The Mongol and Japanese substantives 
furnish the ideas of self. The Chinese, Sanscrit, and 
Latin substantives contribute the notion of substance. 
The Hebrew and Mongol verbs add the conception 
of certainty. Why may not these ideas have met in 
the formation of one pronominal and substantive root, 
destined to pervade the languages of mankind from 



216 



Manchuria to Portugal, and from Calcutta to Finland ? 
That this root is not used in the Semitic, Dravidian, 
Tibetan, Chinese, or Japanese languages, either as a 
substantive verb or personal pronoun, affords a strong 
presumption that it was not originally either the one 
or the other. If this hypothesis be correct, the com- 
bination of ideas, which resulted in the growth of the 
substantive verb in b and the first personal pronoun 
in m, must have taken place in the language which 
originated the present Tartar dialects. The locality of 
this language was probably Western Asia, or Persia, 
or Bucharia, for only in one of these countries could 
it be in such convenient contiguity to the Aryan race 
as to allow of the engrafting of this fruitful germ 
into the mother-speech of that family. 

The other auxiliary verb amoi, I suppose to be the 
Chinese wet, " to do," " to be." This was, as we learn 
from the rhymes of the Shi king, anciently called wa. 
In Sanscrit it appears with a suffix s, which is retained 
in our was and were, in the last of which s is repre- 
sented by r. 

The present amoi seems to be formed from the root 
a by the addition of boi, the present tense of the 
substantive verb in b, with b altered to m. 

The imperfect abai cannot be derived in the same 
way, because, as before stated in the foregoing chapter, 
the Dravidian languages have this tense form, while 
they are without the substantive verb in b. We 



SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 217 

may refer it rather to a Chinese root, pet or bed, " to 
give." 

The form in lai and that in loge may perhaps be 
derived from the Semitic le. The word /e, or al, means 
"towards," "to," "into," and is used to mark the 
dative case. The form el, with a vowel prefix, gives 
in a more marked manner the proper and physical 
sense ; and that with a short vowel suffix, le, is used 
for borrowed and metaphysical senses. 1 The Tibetan 
language has la for a dative case suffix. In the 
Shanghai dialect the same word is used as a dative 
case prefix, and with the force of a substantive verb 
in the locative, as in the sentence, I la a li, " where 
is he?" literally, "he at what place." Here the 
word la, translated by " at," has the force of " is at," 
that is, it is a substantive verb in the locative case. 
Its Mandarin representative is tsai, anciently %e. The 
Mongol imperfect in lai and preterite in loga may have 
been formed from the Semitic le and Shanghai la, by 
the intervention of a gerund usage, or, in other words, 
a predominant use of the verb as a substantive. For 
"he has come back" the Chinese say hwei lai liau, 
literally " return, come, finished." Three verbs are 
here in juxtaposition. Hwei, " return," is a gerund, 
and is translated into English by the present participle 
" returning." Lai, " come," is indicative, and is made 
past by the addition of the auxiliary liau, "past," 
1 Gesenius' Lexicon Hebraicum. 



218 



" finished," which is a modern particle, formed from 
a verb, liau, "to destroy." The Mongol would say 
hairebe, "he returned," or haireji irebe, "returning 
he came." Put le in place of the gerund suffix ji 9 
and the sense will be, " in returning he came." Then 
drop the last verb, " came," and the form in le or loga 
becomes a past indicative. So in modern Mongol, as 
spoken in Peking, sentences such as the following are 
in constant use. — T'ere nidenen jil yabaji, " he left last 
year," literally, "he last year left." The gerund 
form in ji is here used as a past indicative tense. It 
ought to be yababa. It is ungrammatical. l But 
language is always busied in making new forms, 
successfully or unsuccessfully. If the Mongol lan- 
guage needed a past indicative, it might easily be 
made from the gerund in ji or ju in this way. So 
we may suppose the preterite in loga, colloquially 
called lai, to have been formed. This is in harmony 
with the general principle, that tense and mood suffixes 
in the Turanian and Indo-European languages have 
been all formed from verbs viewed as nouns and used 
as gerunds. "When gerunds, participles, and infinitives 
had been formed, they became indicative in past, 
present, or future time by the simple process of drop- 
ping the following verb. This principle of tense and 
mood formation is at the opposite pole to that which 
exists in the Semitic languages. Thus, VJ"h )Vty : fiKT 
1 The full form would add ie'hibe, "went," after the gerund yabaji. 



SUBSTANTIVE VERBS. 219 

zoth asu vihheyu, "this do ye, and live." Here an 
imperative is used in both cases. To the Semite mind 
each verb was instinct with its own energy. He 
struggled to secure to each verb in a sentence its full 
activity, and therefore he connected them by the con- 
junction and. This device allowed them each to be 
indicative. This vital character of the verb has been 
usually retained in the English version of the Scrip- 
tures, as in the same example, " This do, and live ; for 
I fear God." (Gen. xlii. 18.) Luther has altered the 
Semitic mode of expression. He translates, Wollt ihr 
leben, so thut also ; denn ich furchte Gott, " Would you 
live, then so do ; for I fear God." He has two clauses, 
of which the conditional contains two verbs, wollt 
and leben, the latter with a Turanian suffix ; and the 
affirmative one verb in the imperative. Compare this 
with the Septuagint rendering, Tovto irocrja-are teal 
%r)ai(T0€, tov Oebv yap iyeb (pofiovficu, "This do ye, 
and ye shall live ; for I fear, God." The imperative 
and future are here employed. The Greek is only 
second to the English in its capability of imitating 
the freedom and energy of the Semitic verb. How 
different is the Mongol — T'a her amit'o baihwain t'ola 
egoni weiladok't'on hemebesu, bi ber Borhan ec'he aiyomoi, 
" Ye, for the sake of life, should do this. I fear God." 
Ber is a particle which marks the nominative t'a, "ye." 
Amit'o is " living," t'o being equivalent to the English 
suffix ing in living. To' la, "for," governs the infinitive 



220 



baihu, " to have/' " to be," in the genitive. Egoni is 
" it," the final i marking the accusative. WeiladokH'on 
is the plural imperative of weiledehu, " to do." Seme- 
besu is the conditional mood of hemehu, " to say," here 
used as a particle. Bi, her, " I." Borhan, " Buddha," 
is the term used for God in the Mongol version of 
the Scriptures. Aiyomoi is the present indicative of 
aiyohu, " to fear," governing the noun Borhan by the 
intervention of ec'he, " from." The Latin vereor, " to 
fear," which is the same word, sometimes governs the 
genitive. The Greek alBioficu, " to fear," " reverence," 
" be ashamed," retains the old final d, which has been 
changed into r in the Latin vereor. The Chinese wet, 
" to fear," and the Mongol aiyomoi, have both lost the 
final d. 

Beside the verb buhu? " be," there are also two im- 
portant auxiliaries, baihu, "have," and bolhu, "become," 
" arrive at perfection." Bolhu seems to come from 
bolai, the imperfect of buhu, by simply treating it as 
a root and adding to it the usual suffixes. Thus, bu 
is " be "; bol is " arrived at being." In a similar 
way, werden, "to become," seems to be derived from 
war, ware, by appending d, the sign of the past, which 
would give it the sense " already come into being." 
To werd was added the infinitive suffix en, and with it 
all the suffixes usual in the paradigm. Add to bol the 
causative ga, and we have bolgahu, " cause to become." 

Perhaps baihu, "to have," used to assert positive 







FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN. 221 

existence, is formed in a like way from the past tense, 
abai, of aho, "to be." But it may also possibly be 
connected with, the Chinese verb po, or pok, " to hold," 
" hold in the arms or hands," etc. 

On following the substantive verb root in b into 
the pronoun, we find it used in some parts only of 
the declension. As in English, I and me combine 
to make up the declension, so in Mongol bi and minu 
form the nominative and genitive singular, while na, 
another root, forms the dative naded, the ablative 
nadas, the instrumental nadar, the comitative nadale, 
and the substitutionary nadat'a* 

The root nad or na I believe to be the Chinese nga, 
in Mandarin wo, and to be identical with the western 
ego, aham, ich, I, and the Hebrew anochi. The Tamil 
uses this root throughout its declension, as nominative 
nan, "I," accusative ennei, instrumental enndl, dative 
enakku, ablative ennil, genitive en, locative ennil. 

The Tungus and Turkish use the root b or m 
throughout the declension. 

The Mongol plural bida, " we," is carried through 
all the cases. The root na does not appear at all in 
the plural. The suffix da occurs also in the plural 
of nouns not infrequently. The Turkish plural is 
biz, "we," where z, we can scarcely doubt, is a changed 
form of d, as we have found the Mongol j to be 
derived regularly from d. The same plural occurs 
in the Hebrew aboth, "fathers," from ab, "father." 



222 china's place in philology. 

But t in the Indo-European languages occurs not 
seldom for a more recent s. The Latin tu, " thou," is 
older than the Greek <rv, as we learn from the fact that 
the Sanscrit, Grerman, Armenian, Sclavonic, and Zend 
(Bopp, § 340), all use d or t as the initial letter of 
this pronoun. We may, therefore, suppose that the 
original of the Indo-European plural in s is perhaps 
the Turanian and Semitic d and th. On looking for 
its archetype in the Chinese vocabulary, we find it in 
the word ta, " many," in Mandarin to, and also in the 
demonstrative in t. The Japanese plural suffix domo 
is possibly the same. Should this hypothesis of the 
origin of the Indo-European plural in s be incorrect, 
the Mongols still have a plural in s, lost from the 
colloquial language, but retained in books ; and of this 
plural in s it may be found difficult to explain the 
existence in both the families without supposing an 
ancient connexion. 

I will now place in succession those grammatical 
suffixes, used by the Mongols, which seem to find 
their prototypes in the Chinese vocabulary, and re- 
appear in the Indo-European system of accidence and 
derivation. 

The old Mongol nominative in ano, ino, lost from 
the colloquial, is the Chinese and Indo-European pro- 
noun i or in, " he," " she," or " it " ; Shanghai and 
Amoy dialects i, "he"; Latin is, ea, id, ilk, iste ; 
English it; Persian o, "he," in, "this," an, "that." 



MONGOL DECLENSION. 223 

The Persian accusative is ora, "him." This r, with 
the Latin / in ille, seems to be taken from an older 
Turanian form, which appears in Japanese as are and 
in Turkish as ol. The Tamil has masculine ivan and 
avan, feminine ival and aval. As v represents w, these 
are only the lengthened forms of the Mongol ano, ino. 
Many Mongol words ending in n consist of a root 
and a pronominal suffix ino, shortened into n, as morin, 
" horse," from the Chinese mo, " horse." 

The Mongol book genitive in in, u, and on may 
have been formed from the same pronoun, just as the 
Indo-European genitive in sya, s, is, was originally 
the third personal pronoun sa (Bopp, § 134 and § 194). 
How this took place we see plainly enough in Chinese. 
Thus, the sentence " My house " in primeval speech 
would be "I that house." The old Chinese has nga 
bung, " my house," or nga ti bung, where ti is the old 
pronoun " that," " it," called in Mandarin ch'i. The 
natives of Amoy say Gwa e c'hu, where gwa is " I," 
e is the sign of the possessive, and c'hu is "house." 
In this instance the possessive mark is obviously our 
pronoun. The Shanghai people say Nga ku vang tsz, 
literally, "I that house." In that dialect ku is "that." 
The Northern Chinese say Wo ti fang ts'i. The old 
initial ng is lost from the pronoun " I." The third 
personal pronoun in t appears as a possessive auxiliary, 
and the soft v of Shanghai, representing the more 
ancient b, is replaced by the modern /. They also 



224 



say, when speaking somewhat loosely, Wo che ko fang 
ts'i, "I this house/' where che ko is demonstrative 
" this," but also contains in itself the germ of a 
possessive case. Thus, in Chinese dialects the third 
personal pronouns in i, in k, and in t, are all used. 
The other demonstratives in na and t'a may also be 
expected to occur as genitive suffixes. Thus, the 
Japanese use no. The Turkish has ning. The 
Mongols, as before remarked, use nu in the personal 
pronouns. The Grerman has a possessive mein, our 
own mine. The n may be explained in the same 
manner. 

The dative suffix dor, de, "to," "in," "by," "at," 
is the Chinese old demonstrative pronoun ti, Mandarin 
cKi, which is also the probable parent of the gerunds 
in ju and d, as explained on a former page. Just so 
Bopp traces dative suffixes in Indo-European languages 
to demonstrative pronouns (§ 164). But as to and ti, 
in Mandarin tau and ch'i, are both words meaning 
" to," " arrive at," the root ti 9 in its first sense 
demonstrative, will in its second sense have become 
a verb, and then, thirdly, it may have been taken by 
the Mongols to form a dative. So the demonstrative 
i in western languages is also a verb " to go," and then 
a dative, as in regi, " to a king," ircuhi, " to a boy." 

The accusative suffix in i, gi, is formed in a similar 
manner from the Chinese pronoun gi, " he." Compare 
the accusative te, thee, me, dich, mich. 



SUFFIXES. 225 

The instrumental suffixes ber, yar, affixed to nouns 
to mark the thing by which an act is accomplished, are 
the Chinese verbs pa, "take hold of," "handle," and 
h £1 "to take." Both these verbs were probably 
formed from demonstratives. Pi, " that," would 
originate pa; and i, "he," would give existence to 
i, "take," "by means of." What more natural for 
primitive man, when already furnished with demon- 
strative pronouns, than to use them in describing 
both motion towards the positions indicated, and action 
with or by means of the objects spoken of. So Bopp 
identifies the Sanscrit instrumental d with the pro- 
nominal stem a and with the preposition d, "to," 
" into," " reach to," sprung from lite same demon- 
strative. (§ 158.) 

The second instrumental, or, as De Castren calls it, 
comitative case suffix in loga, appears to be connected 
with the Chinese dung, "with," in Mandarin t'ung, 
and lung, " collect," " meet in one place." The 
Chinese final ng is usually omitted in Mongol. Here 
g seems to have taken its place. 

The ablative suffix e'che has for its etymological 
equivalent se, which resembles the Chinese |J dzi, 
"from," in Mandarin ts'i. The Chinese term also 
means " self." The prefix t is probably not primeval. 
The old form in all words commencing in ts is dis- 
covered by dropping t. This word thus seems to be 
the same with the Latin se, "self." 

15 



226 



The adjective suffix t'o is probably the demonstrative 
in t aspirated. Thus alt'et'o, " golden," corresponds 
to the Chinese Mandarin kin ti, where kin is " gold," 
and ti is the unaspirated demonstrative in t, here used 
as a termination imparting to the substantive " gold " 
an adjective character. So also the older Chinese lai 
che, " he who comes," is formed of lai, " come," and 
che, the unaspirated demonstrative in t, pronounced 
anciently te. The Japanese form their adjectives in 
the same way. Thus, they say for " golden," kin np, 
using the genitive suffix, which, as already explained, 
is the demonstrative in n. Thus, we see the adjective, 
the present participle, and the possessive pronoun, all 
proceeding from the same stem, and in the first stages 
of language-formation indistinguishable from each 
other. The demonstrative pronouns pervading all the 
European and Asiatic families of languages may be ob- 
served to play just as important a part in the building 
up of the Turanian grammatical system as they have 
been shown to do in that of the Indo-European family. 

The adjective suffix in hi seems to be formed from 
the Chinese third personal pronoun gi. Thus, dor a hi, 
" that which is below," English down. 

The diminutive suffix hen, han, attached to adjectives, 
is probably the Chinese ngan, found in the Shanghai 
dialect in the sense of " a little." Thus, holahan, 
"somewhat distant." The original sense is "an eye/' 
" a small aperture," hence " a very little." 



PRONOUNS. 227 

The intensitive b, inserted to increase the force of 
the quality described, as in c'hab c'hagan, "exceedingly 
white," ab adeli, " exactly the same," hab hara, " very 
black," is perhaps bit, " to add," in Chinese pei, " to 
double," in Anglo-Saxon botan, " add," English both. 

In their declension the pronouns are like the nouns, 
but there are some differences. 

The personal pronouns have an inserted m in the 
dative and accusative of c'M, " you," as in chimador, 
" to you," chimei, " you " (objective). This may be 
the dative bi, of tibi and sibi. As already seen, the 
Chinese have a verb pet, " to give," and pa, " to take 
hold of." These roots formed dative and instrumental 
suffixes in Latin and Sanscrit. Perhaps this suffixed 
m may, however, be more correctly identified with the 
demonstrative root ma, used interrogatively in Chinese 
and Hebrew. 

The occurrence of the second personal pronoun t ( a, 
" you," in Mongol, points to Semitic juxtaposition in 
ancient times. The existence of a Semitic element 
in Mongol is not impossible. Compare the Hebrew 
rab, " many," with the Mongol airiben, " many." The 
Hebrew pronoun atta, " thou," feminine at, has a 
plural masculine attem, and a plural feminine atten. 
The first syllable, at, is said to be a demonstrative 
prefix, and stands for an, found in the kindred dialects 
and in the Egyptian. The principal letter is t. In 
the Indo-European languages it appears as t, d, and s. 



228 



In the Mongol and other Tartar languages it is s (or 
&h for s) in the singular, and t aspirated or s in the 
plural. The Turkish and Manchu prefer s in the 
singular and plural. The Mongol has t' in the plural. 
The same law which softened t into s in the Greek 
operated in the neighbour dialect of the Tartars, at 
some ancient period when the areas of the Greek and 
Tartar races were contiguous. The vowel a of the 
Mongol plural in Pa, " ye," is very suggestive of a 
connexion with the Greek and Latin neuter plural in 
a, e.g., in saxa, " stones," ea, " these." The distinction 
of gender, a Semite peculiarity, was borrowed by the 
Indo-Europeans subsequently to the time when they 
became dissociated from the ancestors of the Tartars. 
The neuter would precede in time the masculine and 
feminine forms, and this Mongol plural in a may be 
a very old linguistic relic. It is probably the demon- 
strative pronoun a. As the second person in t is not 
found in any part of Europe and Asia, except in the 
Semite Indo-European and Tartar areas, it need not 
be regarded as a primeval word, belonging to the 
world's first language. It may be borrowed from 
the demonstratives. The true primeval pronoun of 
the second person is the Chinese ni or nu, found in 
Sanscrit, Latin, and English, in the forms yuyam, vos, 
and ye, you. Here it is assumed that n has been 
prefixed in Chinese to the original vowel •, which I 
suppose to have been appropriated to the second 



MONGOL PRONOUNS. 229 

person. The vowels may be imagined to have been 
distributed in the following manner. 

A First Person. 





I U Second Person. Third Person. 

The root of the first person was a. This became 
in Chinese and Sanscrit, by prefixing certain elements, 
nga and aham. The Sanscrit-speaking race prefixed 
first h (for ng), and then a, and afterwards added m. 

The root of the second person was i. The Chinese 
prefixed n. The Sanscrit appended yam. 

The root of the third person was u, which appears 
in the Chinese i, the Turkish ol, the old Latin ollus, 
the later ilk, is. 

The Chinese use for " this " and " that," t's'i, pi, 
or more recently che, na. The Mongols say ene, t'ere, 
" this," " that," and yim, t'im, " in this way," " in 
that way." The Germans use the demonstrative in 
d for "this," and that commencing with ye for "that." 
The English in this and in that employ the sonant th 
Evidently it matters little which of the pronouns is 
used. The principle running through all is, that 
some one of the demonstratives shall be used when 
speaking of near objects, and some other when they 
are farther removed. 



230 china's place in philology. 

The interrogative pronoun hen is worth comparing 
with the Sanscrit forms. We find hen, " who ? " 
hanasa, "from whence?" heden, "how many?" hedui, 
" how many ? " hencdhi, " whose ? " The Sanscrit has 
fcri, "who?" /•«//, "how many?" Aw/d, "when?" 
kat'am, " how ? " The Latin has quot, " how many ? " 
fuss, "who?" quando, "when?" The Mongol heje, 
"when?" is formed of the root he and the locative 
suffix je for de. 

AVhen the Turks say kachan for "when?" and kach, 
for " how manj^ ?" they disclose the fact that ch takes 
the place of d with them, as j does that of d in the 
Mongol. The ti in the Sanscrit kati and the t in 
the Latin quot are the Turanian plural in d, and the 
do of quando and da of A'flc/a are the Turanian locative 
suffix. The adverbial suffixes for time, place, number, 
and manner, in the Indo-European languages, are 
vestiges of the old Turanian declension. Quis and 
hah are the same word as the Mongol hen and the 
Turkish kih. The Chinese demonstrative gi, "he," 
and interrogative ki or kui, " how many ? " are forms 
of the same root. The oldest is the demonstrative gi. 
From this sprang the Turanian interrogative hen, 
"who?" and the Chinese ki, "how many?" This 
ki I suppose to have lost a final d, which was the 
word ta, "many," in Mandarin to. Ki-da became 
shortened into kid, and the d was afterwards lost. 
There is an old interrogative kop, "why not?" in 



KOJTGOL PRONOUNS. 281 

Mandarin ho, which is compounded of ho, "what," 
•Aiulpu, "not." This word, there can be little doubt, 
has grown up in this way by the running into one of 
two words originally distinct. The p final is retained 
in the south-eastern dialects, but is lost from the pro- 
nunciation of the other parts of China. In Ningpo 
the deprecative pit yung, "do not," is heard vong. 
This is compounded from ceh, " not," and yung, " use." 
Other examples might be adduced from dialects old 
and new. When the Pekinese say pier for "side," 
they in so doing run two words into one. The words 
are pien, "side," and ur, "a son," used as a suffix 
for substantives. The suffix loses its tone and becomes 
part and parcel of the word to which it is joined. 
Thus the flowing of the two words into one, here 
claimed as the origin of hop, is in harmony with 
Chinese modern practice. With regard to the assump- 
tion that a d or / lias been lost from the word At, I 
think that any one who carefully examines the cha- 
racters in which it is used as a phonetic symbol, will 
conclude that it is so. jjjfg /./', is "a good omen." 
Here we see the word kit, ± "good luck." g| ki t 
is "to cut asunder." Here we Bee kat % "to cut." 
-£& /»/, "a boundary," "the emperor's domain." Here 
appears the same root licit, "to cut." That which 
i> out off receives as its name the name of the action 
which cuts it off. The word jfil kiai, "bound;: 
has almost certainly the same origin, and hafl V 



232 china's place in philology. 

in the same manner. It means " that which is cut 
off." The Hebrew katsah signifies both to "cut off" 
and to "end." The Mongol hijagar, "boundary," 
retains the lost d in the modern j. The phonetic §| 
having anciently the same final d, we may then be 
allowed to regard as identical with the Chinese ki 
the Mongol heden, and the Latin quot. 

The origin of the Chinese ki, "how many?" may 
thus be seen to resemble that of the German compound 
wie viel and the English how many. Ki, how, wie, quis> 
ttoctol, are the same word. The Chinese, Mongol, 
Latin, and Greek forms added da or ta, "many," 
dropping the vowel, and in the instance of the Greek 
changing t into s. The Germans appended viel (the 
Greek iroXkoi), and the English the word many. The 
source of the interrogative element in the Chinese 
word is either }fc gi, "he," or ga, "what," {$ , in 
Mandarin ch'i and ho. Of these, I suppose the demon- 
strative to be the earlier, and the interrogative to be 
formed from it. 

The Turkish has kanda, "where?" kirn, "who?" 
kih, " that," " for," " who," kach, " how many ? " 
kachan, "when?" "We learn from these forms that 
the re in irore and the do in quando, "when," are 
the Turanian locative suffix de, " in " a place. The 
other Turkish form, kani, is probably formed from 
the root nip, ni, " in," " the inside," as in the Chinese 
wei ti, " inner land," kung nei, " in the palace." 



MONGOL ORDINAL NUMERALS. 233 

Perhaps the n in the English when} and German 
wann may have been derived from the same root. 
The m of kirn may be the Chinese and Semitic inter- 
rogative ma, " what ?" Kill reminds us of the Hebrew 
^p hi, "for," originally a demonstrative. 

"While the cardinal numbers in the Mongol are very 
different (from those of China or of the Indo-European 
languages, there is in the syllabic addition for the or- 
dinals a remarkable resemblance. The Chinese prefixes 
de (Mandarin ti). The Mongol adds dogar. The Sanscrit 
adds tit/a, the Latin tus, the Greek to<s, the English th 
or d, the German te. For example, Chinese de si, 
Mongol durebdogar, Sanscrit chaturPa, Greek rerapro^, 
English fourth, German vierte. The root of all these 
forms is the Chinese de, " order," " degree," found 
also in the form tit, in Mandarin chi, in the same 
sense. The Mongols say ded ded yar for " in suc- 
cession." A t or d final has been lost in the ordinal. 
Since r, I, and d are interchangeable letters, we may 
expect to find the same root in the form rod or 
lod. Compare in Chinese led, in Mandarin lie, "to 
arrange," "place in order," the Greek apiQyuos and 
pvd/jLos, and the Latin ordo, litera (though this may 
be from lino, " to smear "), the Russian roda, " a 
class," etc. 

The Mongol verb consists of root and suflix. In 

1 Compare the Anglo-Saxon form in an, as in niw-an, "lately," amidd-an 
"amid." — Vernon's Anglo-Saxon Guide, p. 71. 



234 



this respect its formation is like that of other Mongol 
words. They are not compounds consisting of two 
roots, but of one only, with a servile accompaniment. 
This servile appendage, however, must originally have 
been a root having a significance of its own. There 
was a time in Turanian history when its long suffixes, 
varying from one syllable in length to four or five, 
were separate roots, arranged in juxtaposition like 
the words in Chinese sentences. Before the Dra vidian 
and Japanese branches separated from the Tartar, 
many verbs had assumed servile appendages, while 
the right to place roots side by side without servile 
syllables was still retained. After the separation, the 
Tartar dialects gave up this privilege, and submitted 
to the necessity of introducing at least one servile 
syllable after every verb root, except when used in 
the imperative mood. 

Most of the original roots needed to account for 
the servile syllables in the Mongol conjugation occur 
in the Chinese vocabulary. They may be arranged 
in groups thus : — 

1. Words suitable to form past tenses are such as 
bat, " ended/' dzin, " to end," " exhaust/' ti, " bring to 
a standstill," liau, " decay/' " end," mot, " end," zeng, 
" already," wan, " finished," hang, " pass through," yi, 
"already," tse, "past," ka, "passed." In Mandarin 
pa, tsin. cKi, liau, mo, t'seng, wan, king, i, kwo. 

2. "Words suitable to be the source of future tense 



MONGOL CONJUGATION. 235 

suffixes, yo, " want," yok, " wish," ngen, " desire," pit, 
" certainly," tsiong, siong, " beside," " assist," " lead." 
In Mandarin yau, yu, yuen, pi, tsiang, siang. 

3. Words suitable to form a conditional mood, kip, 
"give," t'si, si, "give," shong, "to reward," pet, "give," 
u, "give," Aw, "permit," dik, "band to," "present," 
sung, " to ^present," "accompany." In Mandarin kei, 
ki, t'si, shang, pei, yu, hu, ti, sung. 

4. Permissive words are nung, bang, hu, nim. In 
Mandarin Jang, pHng, hu, Jen. 

5. Words suitable to form gerunds and present 
participles, ti, old Chinese genitive, also meaning "to," 
" towards," " him," " it," gi, Pa, ui, " he," nei or nip, 
"within," dze, "at," le, "within," la, gip, "to," yu, 
" at." In Mandarin ch'i, chH t'a, i, nei, tsai, li, ki, yu. 

6. Causal words are, ko, "call," "cause," "instruct" 
(Mandarin kiau), shi, "use," "one who is used or 
sent," ling, "command," "cause." 

7. Collectives are, dzip, " gather," dzu, " collect." 
Mandarin tsi, tsii. 

In addition to this large storehouse of Chinese 
words, adapted to supply the necessities of the verb 
formation, the ancestors of the Mongols were also able 
to borrow from the old Turanian and Semitic vocabu- 
laries, in those departments where they happened to 
be fuller than the Chinese. 



236 china's place in philology. 

A Mongol Yerb. 

Indicative Present. — Book-forms, abomoi, abort 
amoi, abonam, " I take." From the substantive verb 
amoi, the English am. The suffix n is that of a 
gerund, and this originates the eastern colloquial abona. 

Frequentative Present. — Abodag, " I am con- 
stantly taking." Perhaps from the Chinese dung, 
"constantly." Mongol c'hang. The Latin frequen- 
tative syllable is ta. 

Imperfect. — Alaba, " killed." Suffix ba either from 
pet, "give," or from bat, "ended" (see chapter on 
Tamil). Another form for the third person is alaron. 
This suffix ron can only be derived from some western 
source. The letter r shows that it is not Chinese. It 
agrees remarkably with the Latin third person plural 
of the perfect tense, amaverunt, docuerunt, and with 
the third person plural middle voice of the Sanscrit 
potential and precative modes in ran. As the Mongol 
verb does not distinguish persons, this exceptional 
form must have crept in irregularly at some ancient 
period from an Indo-European source. 

Perfect. — JBeriloga, " have grasped it." From loga, 
a post-position meaning "with," "at," Chinese la, 
Tibetan la, Semitic al, le. 

Pluperfect. — Bagoksan buloge, "he had come 
down." From the past participle of bagoho and the 
preterite of buhu, "to be." 



MONGOL VERB. 237 

Future. — The suffixes sogai, ho, and ya may be 
compared with the Greek future in aw and the Latin 
in am. Looking back, the most probable original 
roots, as found in Chinese, are yok and tsiong, " to 
wish," and " to lead," respectively. The form in ho 
is the infinitive, which is probably formed from the 
third personal pronoun gi. 

Conditional. — Suffix besu. In colloquial bel. Gem- 
sibel, "if I repent." Pluperfect conditional ognsen 
bolbesu, " if I had given," viz., the preterite participle 
of oghu, " to give," and the conditional of bolhu, " to 
become." The origin of this mood is probably to be 
found in the Chinese pet, " give," and pi, " compare." 

Potential. — Idemoija, "he perhaps eats." Ujisen 
boija, "he may have seen it." Both these verbs are 
familiarly used throughout Europe, edo, "eat," video, 
"see." Baga and bija are common in the eastern 
Mongol. Ba and bi are the same root pet, which 
forms the conditional. Ja for da seems to be the 
root da, "give," which perhaps lurks in the Chinese 
dik, " to present," " offer to." 

Precative and Imperative. — The simple root. Song- 
sq, "hear." In the first person singular and plural 
the future in ya is used, as yabiya, "let us go." 
" Let him go " is yaboge. The suffix ge may be the 
Chinese ngen, "to desire," or ho, "permit." 

Gerunds. — Present in n. Onggac'hi dere garan 
yababa, " going out to the boat he went away." The 



238 



Greek participle in v, the Latin in ns and nt, the 
Anglo-Saxon in nd, the colloquial English in n, and 
the modern English in ng, have their origin in this 
Turanian form. The Chinese roots which come nearest 
to it in sound are yin, " cause>" yuen, " cause," net or 
nip, " within." I prefer to regard yin as the true 
root, and identify it with our preposition in, iv. 

Gerund in ju. Old form du. Chinese pronoun and 
sign of genitive ti. In Mandarin ch'i. Identical with 
the English past tense in ed. 

Gerund in d. Schmidt calls it past, but it is little, 
more a past tense than the gerund in ju. Probably 
it is of the same origin. 

Gerund in man. A colloquial form, JBada idemen 
irebeu, "after taking food he came." 

Gerund in tola and sagara. Colloquial sara. They 
limit the verb in " time." Tala is " until," and sara, 
"during the time of." Nar onatalei helchibeu, "he 
conversed till the sun set." Origin, the Chinese to or 
tau. English to and till. Sara probably originates in 
the Chinese dze, " at," " to be in," or " at." Example, 
uder uder ireser baina, " daily he is in the habit of 
coming." 

Gerund in Itei. A sort of passive gerund. The 
future participle passive of western grammar, e.g. 
amandus, " deserving to be loved." Examples, bicheltei, 
" deserving to be written," icheltei, " worthy to be gone 
to," ene chichig ujeltei, " this flower is worth seeing." 



MONGOL VERB. 239 

Formation : the I in bichel is a derivative suffix, form- 
ing a verbal noun. It may be originally la, " to." 
The syllable tei is an adjectival suffix, and must be 
referred to the pronominal root ta, " that." The Latin 
dus in amandus may in the same way be viewed as 
demonstrative. 

Supine, in ra, re. In Manchu and Latin, re is the 
infinitive suffix. In English the same preposition, 
"to," marks both the infinitive and the supine. We 
may, therefore, without hesitation, identify the supine 
of the Mongol written language with the Manchu and 
Latin infinitive. The colloquial supine in Eastern 
Mongolia is the infinitive construct in hwei, e.g. ujihwei 
iehibeu, "he went to see." 

The infinitive ends in ho, hu, and hwei. The 
Turanian conception of the verb being intensely sub- 
stantive, the infinitive is regularly declined as a noun. 
Origin : the Chinese pronoun gi, Latin hie, English 
he. The form varies, as in ho or hu, according as the 
vowel of the root is a, o, or e, u. It may be called the 
free infinitive. The form in hwei, or hoi, is the in- 
finitive construct, and is used in declension, and as a 
supine, e.g. holda hwen t'ola garaba, "he is gone out to 
sell." Here the suffix t'ola, " for the sake of," follows 
the infinitive in the genitive. 

Participle. A present in gchi or chi. As yabokchi, 
" going," " he who goes." It is used profusely for all 
classes of agents. Origin: demonstrative in s. In 



240 



Chinese t's'i, si. In Sanscrit, sah. There is also a past 
participle in gsan, san. For example, yabasen, " gone," 
in the book-form yabagsan. Origin: Chinese zeng, 
" already," in Mandarin Pseng or san, " scatter,'* 
"separate." For the negative conjugation there is a 
form in I, as in holdal ugwei irebeu, " not having sold it 
he came," that is, "he came without having sold it." 
There is also a past negative participle in ge, as in 
iregedei, " he has not come." 

Mongol Adverb. 

In the grammar of the Turanian languages, the verb, 
substantive, adverb, and conjunction, are imperfectly- 
distinguished. It was in the Indo-European system 
that adverbs and conjunctions first became indeclinable, 
and the verb began to lose its character as a noun. It 
was only by gradual steps that the eight parts of speech 
could arrive at the point of clear separation from each 
other. Mongol grammar presents us with a multitude 
of adverbs and conjunctions in the form of nouns and 
verbs. Much light is thrown by this part of Turanian 
accidence on the adverbial forms common in European 
speech. To show this, the following case suffixes of 
Mongol adverbs will be a sufficient proof. 

Locative suffix dor, "in," "at." Eastern colloquial 
de. Ende, " here," tende, " there." As ende is good 
book Mongol, the colloquial de may be fully as old as 



MONGOL ADVERB. 241 

the ordinary book locative dor. Greek oIkoOl, "at 
home/' rj&Oi,, "in the morning," ev6a, "here." English 
yonder^ 

Suffixes to express motion " towards," dor and de. 
In Chinese tau and ti. Mandarin chl. Ende, "hither," 
t'ende, " thither," hande, " whither." Here the coinci- 
dence with the English ther is remarkable. The 
Anglo-Saxon forms are hider, pider, hvider, " hither," 
"thither," "whither." The old Norse forms are 
he"%ra, pa?6ra, hvert. The old Greeks used Se, as in 
akaSe, "to the sea," Oavcurov Be, "to death." In evOdBe, 
" thither," " hither," we have the locative suffix dor in 
6 a, and that of motion towards in Be. In aXkoae, " to 
another place," a sibilant has taken the place of d. 

Suffix to express motion from. Mongol e&he, collo- 
quial ese. Hanasa, " whence," enese, " hence," tendese, 
" thence." The book forms are hamigasa, " whither ?" 
t'ende ec'he, " from thence," ende ec'he, " hence." The 
Manchu has c'hi as the suffix for "from," and the 
Turkish dan. English whence, hence, thence. Can the 
English have retained the suffix ce by tradition from an 
old Turanian language ? This question is difficult to 
answer, because the Anglo-Saxon forms were hvonan, 
henan, ponan. It may have been through the Danes, 
for the old Norse had hvaftan, he^San, pa&an, for 
"whence," "hence," "thence." Latham says, 1 "The 
ce in ' hence/ ' whence/ ' thence/ has still to be satis- 

1 The English Language, vol. ii., p. 320. 

16 



242 



factorily explained. The old English is whenn-es, 
thenn-es." The old Norse Kan and Greek 6ev being 
Turanian, may not the English ce be inherited from a 
Danish dialect, which has not transmitted a literature, 
and thus also be Turanian ? 

The Turkish locative suffix dah is the same as the 
Mongol dor. The Sanscrit atra, "here," tatra, "there," 
kutra, " there," have nearly the Mongol form. Instead 
of following Bopp in tracing the origin of the suffix 
tra to the comparative suffix taken instrumentally, I 
would suggest that it is better to see in it a Turanian 
suffix dor, as now explained. Compare the Latin citra, 
intra, and (without the r) quando. The Greeks said 
evda and ivravOa, "here," and avr60i, "in the place 
where he was," the old Hindoos kadd, " when ?" tadd, 
"then," and yadd, "when." The Zend had had ( a t 
"here," the Slavish kogda, "when ?" and togda, "then." 
The Mongol has heje, " when," and this is equivalent to 
hede. The Greek has ore, rore, " when," " then." The 
suffix in all these forms may perhaps be traced to one 
origin. It is ultimately a demonstrative and interro- 
gative pronoun, and is the same with the Turanian 
locative in dah and dor. "With the forms when, ivannt 
quum, before us, there seems no reason to look else- 
where. Bopp, however, finds, as he thinks, in the da 
of kadd, a contraction from diva, " by day." l Perhaps 
the forms here, there, dar, thar, her, hvar, etc., have 
1 Vergleichende Grammatik, § 423. 



MONGOL ADVERB. 243 

this source also. The t may be omitted and the r left. 
The Sclavonic and Eussian gdye retains the radical ga, 
"what," in the initial g, and the Turanian suffix dor in 
dye. The suffix appears in podii, "under," mezhdu, 
"between." The Greek derivative suffix Bov, indicat- 
ing the manner of an action, is probably of the same 
origin : ^va^avBov, " openly," avrocr^eBov, " near at 
hand." This Bov is often Ba in Homer, as in OB. 
III. 221. 

Ov yap irca Idov a>Se dzobs ava(pavSa (piKevvras, 
'fls Keivij) amcpavSa TrapicTTaro IlaWas '&9i}vi). 

"From a place" is so frequently in western languages 
expressed by dan, or equivalent forms, that we are com- 
pelled to regard the Turkish ablative suffix in dan as 
in this instance preserving a very important old Tu- 
ranian type. The Greek iroOev, " whence," corresponds 
to the Sanscrit kutas, and we may regard the Sanscrit 
s as altered from an older n. The Latin has coelitus, 
which Bopp identifies with svargatas, " from heaven." 
He also finds in the Sclavonic suffix du, "from," the 
Armenian ti, and the Gothic thro, variants from the 
same primary form. 

The common ancient suffix for "from," in the Anglo- 
Saxon and German was nana or nan. Latham quotes 
from Grimm the Old High German hivanana, Old Saxon 
hwanan, Anglo-Saxon hwonan, all meaning " whence." 
The equivalents for " thence " and " hence " are simi- 
larly formed. We find in one of the Dravidian 



244 china's place in philology. 

languages an ablative suffix which may explain this 
nan. The Malay alim has ilninna for the ablative, as 
in mala-y-ilninna, "from the mountain/ ' where mala 
means "mountain." We have not the opportunity of 
examining old types of the Turanian family. We must 
await the decipherment of Persian cuneiform inscrip- 
tions for further light on the subject of these remark- 
able resemblances between the adverbial suffixes of the 
Turanian and Indo-European languages. The Dra- 
vidian case suffixes may perhaps be regarded as having 
been in use for at least two thousand years, for the 
Tamil writing is based on the Devanagari of the 
monuments. Hence the Dra vidian languages were the 
first of the Turanian family to be committed to writing 
out of Persia. They were written before the Japanese 
or the Mongol. Any Dravidian case suffixes, therefore, 
which happen to agree in form with those of European 
languages, may easily be of very great antiquity. 

Some examples of Mongol syntax will be here given 
with parallel examples from the Chinese language. 
Adjectives precede their substantives, and adverbs their 
verbs. Mongol alt' en gerel, " golden light," Chinese 
kin kwang ; Mongol saihan yaba, " walk carefully," 
Chinese hau hau er ti tseu ; Mongol hamt'o echine, "we 
will go together," Chinese t'ung k'ii or i k'icai er c l hu. 

The nominative begins a sentence. Then comes the 
object of the verb. The verb stands last. Mongol 
hi teri alaba, "I killed him," Chinese wo sha Hau t'a. 



MONGOL SYNTAX. 245 

The Chinese verb precedes its object. But the Chinese 
order is not like the Mongol invariable. If an auxili- 
ary particle be employed, the verb may stand last. 
Thus pa, " to take hold of," may be used to vary the 
order. Wo pa t'a sha liau, literally, " I taking him 
killed finished." This is something like the inaccurate 
English, " I took and killed him." 

Adjectives may stand in the predicate without a 
substantive verb, and when a comparison is made, they 
may take a comparative or superlative force without 
its being necessary to prefix adverbs. Mongol uge 
bugdege sain, " his words are all good," Chinese hiva 
tu hau; Mongol oseg bugdege t'odorahai, "the letters 
are all in their right places," Chinese ts'i tu wen t'o. 
The law of arrangement in the two languages is pre- 
cisely the same. Mongol hoyer yagomanu doVora ene 
sain, literally, " two things amidst this good," that is, 
" of the two things this is the better, Chinese Hang 
yang tung si che ko hau, literally, " two kinds things 
this one good." The comparative force is conveyed 
in the same manner in both languages, and that by 
position. 

The duplication of words, to give a plural to nouns, 
and to denote succession in time and place, occurs 
frequently in Mongol and Chinese. Mongol nig nig ere 
hamoge ireksen, " one by one all came," Chinese yi ko yi 
ko tu lai liau. Literally, "one" (numerative), "one" 
(numerative), "all come finished." The Mongol suffix 



246 china's place in philology. 

ere or er or yar, is frequently appended to nouns and 
adjectives to make adverbs. It is probably the source 
from which the Latin adverbs in er, as libenter, in- 
stanter, have derived their last syllable. Mongol c'hag 
c'hag wei wei, " time after time," " generation after 
generation." Chinese sh'i sh'i tai tai, " age after age," 
" generation after generation." Compare in Latin quis- 
quis, " whosoever." 

These and other peculiarities show that a remarkable 
resemblance exists between the syntax of the Chinese 
and of the Mongol languages. The Tibetan in placing 
the adjective after its noun goes away further from 
the Chinese than does the Mongol. In the conjugation 
of the verb, and the absence of gender, the Mongol 
is nearer to the Chinese than the Tibetan, which pre- 
fers Semitic analogies. Thus in the order of succession 
perceptible among verbs when standing in juxtaposi- 
tion, there is a clear likeness to the Chinese. The order 
is that of time. Mongol t ( ere haireju ireksen, "he is come 
back," Chinese t'a hwei lai Kau. T'ere, " he," is the 
same word as t'a with the suffix r. Hwei, " return," 
is the same word as haireju, to which r was first affixed, 
and thenyw, the mark of the gerund. Lai, "come," 
is perhaps the same word as ireksen, the past participle 
of irehu, " come," here used as a past indicative. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Malayo-Polynesian.— The Malay the Type of a Distinct Family. 
Alphabet and Syllable. — Polynesian Syllable Based on 
the old Chinese Syllable. — Effect of Marine Climate on the 
Malayo-Polynesian Syllable.— Continental Origin of the 
Polynesians. — Connexion of Siamese and Malay. — Post- 
Position of the Adjective and Genitive. — Pronouns.— Case 
Particles. — Semitic Principles. — Chinese Influence on 
Polynesia. — Pronouns. — Verbal Directives. — Comparison. — 
Arithmetic. — American Languages. — Their Mixed Character. 
— Three Elements of American Population. — Polynesian 
Civilized Immigration. 



At the extreme south-east of the continent of Asia 
the Malay and Polynesian area presses upon that of 
the Himalaic races in the peninsula of Malacca, and 
meets the Chinese in Formosa. The Malaysian and 
Polynesian system presents to view some remarkable 
points of resemblance to the Chinese and Himalaic 
types. It is on this account that a brief chapter on 
this system is here introduced. 

Crawfurd has condemned the opinion of Marsden, 
Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Sir S. Raffles, that the 
islands of the Indian Ocean and South Sea, from 
Madagascar to Easter Island, are peopled by a single 
race. He remarks that the population of these islands 



248 china's place in philology. 

consists of brown men with lank hair (Malay), of 
sooty men with woolly hair, and of brown men with 
frizzled hair. The first of these three, the Malay race, 
extends over the Sandwich, the Fejee, the Society, and 
the Friendly Islands, with the Malayan peninsula 
and most of the islands of the Asiatic archipelago. 

The Malay language cannot be regarded as Indo- 
European, because, as F. Miiller has shown in a 
criticism on the view held by Bopp, it forms deriva- 
tives by prefixes, and not by suffixes. From tidor, 
"to sleep/' is formed, by means of the prefix per, 
the word per-tidor-an, " a bed." In the Tagala dialect 
of the Philippines, from guntin, "shears," is formed, 
by the insertion of um, the word g-um-untin, "to cut 
with shears." 

Max Miiller inclines to regard the Malay as a Tu- 
ranian language, and as especially allied to the Siamese. 
But there are some strong objections to this very 
extended use of the word Turanian. To class the 
Siamese with the Mongol and Japanese is inconvenient, 
because it is a monosyllabic language with tones, and 
like the Chinese places the verb before its object. The 
word Turanian can be suitably limited to languages 
which form derivatives by polysyllabic suffixes, make 
use of case endings, place the verb at the end of the 
sentence, and have a certain system of rules for the use 
of vowels. 

It is better to regard the Malay as the type of a 



MALAY ALPHABET AND SYLLABLE. 249 

separate family, as is done by F. Muller. The agree- 
ment between the Malay and the Siamese is indeed 
remarkable. The adjective follows the substantive, the 
genitive follows the nominative, and the demonstrative 
pronoun follows its noun in both languages. The per- 
sonal pronouns are also alike. But the non-existence 
of tones in the Malay, its polysyllabic character, and 
its entirely new series of numerals forbid our classi- 
fying it as one with any member of the Himalaic 
family. 

The alphabet of the Malay family is rich in letters, 
and in this respect resembles the Himalaic, and old 
Chinese, except in the want of aspirates. 

A Dravidian influence is visible in the cerebral series 
t, d, n. The surd series k, t, p, s, is found both in the 
Malay and in the eastern or Polynesian group, but the 
sonants g, d, b, of the western branch (the Malay), are 
wanting in the eastern. There is a resemblance to the 
triple-branched Turanian system in the use of s and 
the want of sh, and to the Japanese and Dravidian 
divisions in the absence of the aspirated forms of k, t, 
and p. 

The simplicity of the Malayo-Polynesian syllable 
shows the antiquity of the system to which it belongs. 
The initial consonant is usually single, and is never 
followed by another consonant, except sometimes by r. 
An initial sp, st, for example, would be impossible. In 
the western division of these languages, k, t, p, ng, n, m 



250 



(as in old Chinese), terminate syllables. Also s, h, r, 
and / (which is not true of the old Chinese), are some- 
times found at the end of syllables. 

The dissyllabic character of the roots in Malay 
reminds us of the Semitic system. "All monosyllabic 
roots, with the exception of some pronominal stems 
and particles, are shortened from dissyllables. All 
words of more than two syllables have become so by 
phonal additions to the dissyllabic base." 1 

The possibility of terminating syllables with con- 
sonants extends eastward to the Caroline Islands. In 
the dialect of Ponape, sixty degrees east of Penang, 
and in nearly the same latitude, syllables are closed 
by consonants, as in the Malay. 2 In the East India 
Islands consonants are allowed to close syllables, and 
the letters used are the same which close syllables in 
the Turanian and old Chinese systems. The Polynesian 
dialects extend south-east from the eastern termination 
of the Caroline Islands for seventy degrees. Here 
the syllables are never closed by consonants. The 
peculiarities in the formation of the syllable in eastern 
Asia are adhered to in this respect through about half 
the longitudinal extent of the immense island group, 
which reaches from Sumatra to Tahiti. Through the 
Australian dialects the eastern Asiatic system is still 

1 F. Muller, p. 324. 

2 Grammatical Notes on the Language of Ponape, by L. H. Gulick, 
M.D., Missionary on that island. 




MALAY PHONETIC SYSTEM. 251 

adhered to, but the final consonants are limited to ng, 
n, m, I, r. Australia then has, by a process of decay, 
lost the finals k, t, p. In the great cone of islands 
whose apex is twenty degrees east of Tahiti, and whose 
base is planted in the one case on the mainland of 
Australia, in the province of Queensland, and in the 
other on Ponape, in the Caroline Archipelago, the final 
consonants have all been lost from the syllable. In the 
East India Islands the finals k, t, p, are used in addi- 
tion to those of Australia, and the resemblance to the 
eastern Asiatic syllable there becomes complete. 

The same contrast exists in this respect between 
Malaysia and Polynesia as between Mongolia and 
Japan. The Japanese, living in a soft and luxurious 
climate, have dropped the final consonants, which in 
the cold and bracing climate of the Gobi plateau have 
been retained by their Mongolian cousins. So, also, 
the Malay syllable bears the same relation to that 
of Australia that the old Chinese syllable does to the 
modern. The Malay system admits k> t, p, at the end 
of syllables as well as ng, n, m; and this is also true 
of the old Chinese system still retained in the dialects 
of Amoy and Canton. The Australian system, like 
the modern Mandarin of China, at the end of its 
syllables only allows nasals or the letter r. 1 

In view of these facts, it may be concluded that 
the old Chinese closed syllable, with the finals Jc, t, p, 
1 F. Miiller, p. 247. 



252 



CHINA S PLACE IN THILOLOGY. 



ng y n, ?n, lies at the basis of, and was formerly found in, 
all the languages of Austral- Asia and the South Seas. 
Further, the additional finals, I, s, there existing, are 
such as occur in the Himalaic and Turanian systems. 
The want of final consonants in any of the Oceanic 
dialects may be accounted for by phonetic decay. 
They may have been simply dropped, or they may 
have taken vowels after them, and so become initial 
consonants to supplemental syllables. 

In addition to the question of the finals, there is also 
the question of the initials. Neither the Australian 
nor the Polynesian dialects have the letters g, d, b. 
Yet they have sounds something like them, which, 
after careful consideration, the missionaries and others 
busied in collecting data respecting the native lan- 
guages usually agree to write k, t, p. In the Malay 
region only do the letters g } d, and b occur in their 
full distinctness. The conclusion again seems forced 
upon us, that secular decay has wrought destruction 
in the alphabets of the more distant dialects, while 
the Malay, more recent in the time of its migration 
from the continent, has better preserved its ancient 
form. As in China it is only in the old middle dialect 
that the sonant series of the old language is well 
retained, so this relic of the primeval language of 
mankind finds a refuge in the Malay area when 
abandoned by all the more southern and eastern modes 
of speech. All this is in full harmony with the view 



CONNEXION OF SIAMESE AND MALAY. 253 

that the Malay, and other Oceanic races of the same 
sisterhood, proceeded from Asia south-eastward, just 
as the Chinese (who drove the Miau tribes before them 
into the mountains of Kweicheu), and other races of 
Eastern Asia, all show signs of western origin. The 
Polynesian and Australian alphabets, now predomi- 
nantly surd, were originally, as it would appear, 
sonant, but the Malays left the continent with the 
double series of letters found in Hebrew and old 
Chinese. It seems premature for F. Miiller to say, 
" So much remains certain, and will never by the most 
brilliant and most trenchant reasonings be disproved: 
the Malayo-Polynesians are connected with no Asiatic 
people." 

In the discussion which has been originated by 
Max Miiller's views on the intimate connexion existing 
between the Siamese and Malay languages, — and in 
which Pott and F. Miiller have placed themselves in 
opposition to that philologist, — it seems to me that 
reason is on the side of the Oxford professor. The 
resemblance is in many respects most marked. Both 
languages are clear of all trace of the great Turanian 
inversion, by which the verb is placed at the end of the 
sentence, and in this they are at one with the Chinese 
and Semitic systems. Consequently the case- marks are 
prefixes in Malay, as in the Siamese and its sister 
dialects of the eastern Himalaic family. Thus, in 
Malay the order is as in English, disabrang sungei, 



254 



"beyond the river," buka pintu, "open the door," 
diJantei, "on the floor" (diatas, "upon," lantei, "floor^). 

The absence of the distinction of gender and number 
in nouns places the Malay in agreement with the 
Siamese, Chinese, and other monosyllabic languages. 
Thus, orang Halayu is "a Malay man," or "the 
Malays"; orang being "man" or "men," just as in 
Chinese ta Jen is " a great man " or " the great men." 
The same principle underlies the Turanian languages, 
as in Mongol: ende nei himn ho aina ("here's man all 
fear "), " the people of this place are all afraid." 
Here hwun, in the written language Jc'umun (Latin 
homo), is plural, though constantly used in the singular. 
That in such a case the regular plural form ending in d 
is not used is proof that the root without a suffix is, as 
in Chinese, either plural or singular. So in the Hebrew 
rW niK£ WISH Hhamesh meoth shana, "500 years," 
shana is in the singular, although two plurals exist, 
viz., shanoth and shanim. Even in English some nouns 
are undefined in regard to number, e.g., fish, which is 
singular or plural. But such examples are exceptional. 

A remarkable resemblance of the Malay to the 
Siamese and other Himalaic tongues lies in the post- 
position of the adjective. This principle characterizes 
all the Himalaic and Polynesian languages, and goes 
far to cut them off from any thoroughly intimate 
connexion with the Chinese and Turanian systems. 
The Semites placed the adjective after its noun, and 



POST-POSITION OF THE GENITIVE. 255 

they once occupied Persia. Persia is the western 
neighbour of Tibet. May not this post-position of 
the adjective have passed from the Semites to the 
Tibetians, Siamese, Malays, and Polynesians ? Or 
did the Semites, at some date anterior to the Aryan 
conquest of Persia, borrow this peculiarity from the 
ancestors of the Polynesians ? 

In the parallel principle, the post-position of the 
genitive, the Tebetians have, under Turanian influence 
as it would seem, gone out of the line. But with this 
exception, the Semitic, Himalaic, Malay, and Poly- 
nesian systems, all agree in placing the genitive after 
its noun, that is, the possessor after that which is 
possessed. Thus the same powerful Semite influence 
which introduced this idiom into European languages 
has also made itself felt in all the eastern Himalaic 
languages, and in the Oceanic archipelago eastward to 
the Sandwich Islands, and south to New Zealand. 

Another very strong proof of consanguinity between 
the Siamese and the Malay is found in the pronouns. 
The three personal pronouns are in Siamese, ku, meung, 
mon, in Khamti, kau, man, man, in Malay, ku, mu, na. 
The Chinese nga, "I," appears in Chinese dialects under 
the forms gwa (Amoy), ngu, nu (Kiangsu), wo (Man- 
darin). We are not therefore surprised to find it nad 
in Mongol, ku in Siamese, ego in Greek and Latin, ku 
in Malay, natoi in Australian, hau in New Zealand, wau 
in Hawaii. 



256 



The Malay pronoun for the second person is mu. It 
is found among the Miau tribes in south-western China 
in the form mu, and among the Li tribes of the Hainan 
mountains under that of mow. The origin of this pro- 
nominal form for the second person, which is found 
only in the eastern Himalaic and Malay area, and does 
not extend into Polynesia, may be traced with great 
probability to an honorific use of the third personal 
pronoun in m. This pronoun is found in Siamese 
under the form mon, in Hainan as pun, in the Miau 
dialect as men. These forms all mean "he." In the 
Chinese language, the indefinite pronoun meu, "a 
certain person," is probably the same word. The 
Chinese and Semitic interrogative pronoun ma, 
"what?" may also be referred perhaps to the same 
root, for as the relative has often grown out of the 
interrogative, so the interrogative has quite as fre- 
quently grown out of the demonstrative. Thus the 
order of origin would be in Latin hie, quis ? qui, and 
in English he, who? who. 

The Malay pronoun for the third person is na. This 
we may identify with the common Chinese demonstra- 
tive na, "that," "which?" and with the Siamese 
demonstratives ni, "this," non, "that." The Malay 
demonstrative " this " is mm. 

This close similarity in the personal pronouns be- 
tween the Malay and Siamese does not extend to the 
Polynesian dialects, nor to all those of the Malay area. 



SIAMESE AND MALAY PRONOUNS. 257 

The first person in k (ku, ko, ki) is found indeed in all 
the Malay dialects, including that of Madagascar. It 
also prevails in the form ahau and ku in the Tonga 
language and that of New Zealand. 

The second person in m is used in Borneo, Java, 
and the Philippine Islands, but not in the more distant 
members of the Malay group ; nor is it anywhere 
employed in Australia or Polynesia. Thus much I 
gather from the examples collected by Professor F. 
Miiller, p. 342. 

The argument from identity in pronouns is much 
stronger than F. Miiller allows. The example he 
adduces to show that it is of little worth (p. 278), is 
that of the existence of similar pronouns in the Ural- 
altai 1 and Indo-European families. But the identity 
of the pronouns in these two linguistic stems is a 
strong support to Professor Max Miiller's view. In 
the Tartar and Indo-European families, as has been 
shown, the striking resemblance noticeable in the 
pronouns is also found in the substantive verb, in the 
adverbial case suffixes, in the tense suffixes, in the 
gerundial and participial forms, in the signs for the 
plural, and in a large number of common roots. 
Hence, when the philological inquirer finds the pro- 
nouns identical, he may expect to discover other 
agreements revealing themselves on examination. The 

1 De Castren, the Finnish philologist, proposed this term for the 
Tartar, Siberian, Finnish, Esthonian, and Hungarian languages. 

17 



258 



existence of a second personal pronoun in m, over 
an area of 25° in longitude and 35° in latitude in 
south-eastern Asia, is parallel, on a smaller scale, to 
the existence of the first and second personal pronouns 
in m or b, and t or s, over the Ural-altai and Indo- 
European area, and affords good ground for expecting 
that many other fundamental similarities will be found 
to exist. 

The law of position for case particles is similar in 
the Chinese, Semitic, Siamese, and Malay. Preposi- 
tions are used for the purpose of indicating case. 

" To a place " is in Chinese tau, to, ti, chi, Semitic 
la, Siamese p'eni, Malay datan, Tibetan la, Mongol de. 

" From a place " is in Chinese zi, zung, or ts'i, t'sung, 
Semitic min, Siamese de, Malay deri, Turkish dan. 

" With " is in Chinese dung, t'ung, Semitic DJ7, gim 
(Latin cum), fiNi, eth (English with. Compare the 
sense of " with " in " withstand " with the meaning 
" against," which is the not uncommon force of the 
Hebrew eth). Siamese kab (connected with the 
Chinese gip, "to arrive at," "along with"), Malay 
dengan. 

" In " is in Chinese tsai, and as a suffix, li, tung, 
chung, Semitic be, Siamese mai, Malay di (in some 
dialects ri), Mongol dot 1 or a, 

" Towards " is in Chinese hiang, and in Malay ka. 

"By means of" is in Chinese i, tsiang, tan, yung, 
Siamese dwa, Malay ulih, oleh. 



SEMITIC PRINCIPLES IN MALAY. 259 

Out of these six instances, there are five in which 
the Chinese and Malay approach each other, viz., " to," 
" with," " in," " towards," and " by means of." 

There are three instances of agreement of the Malay 
with the Siamese, "from," "in," and "by means of." 

The Chinese initial h is to be regarded as k, and ch 
as t The Chinese / often comes from an earlier d. 
The final ng is commonly lost, and n occasionally. 

The paucity of instances in which the Malay and 
Siamese approach each other in the use of prepositions 
is probably owing to a want of the means of com- 
parison. Jones^ "Grammatical Notices of the Siamese 
Language " is very brief, and contains few words. 1 

The influence of the Semitic family extends, in 
regard to laws of position, into Malay and the Oceanic 
dialects to the eastward of the Malay Archipelago, but 
in regard to roots it seems to stop with Tibet. So the 
Mongols have some Semitic principles, as the plural 
in d, but very few Semitic words. 

In addition to the post-position of the adjective and 
the genitive in Malay, that of the demonstrative pro- 
noun constitutes another striking feature. This recalls 
the favourite Hebrew idiom, which places the demon- 
strative with the article after the noun, e.g., hammakom 
hahu, " that place." The article ha is here prefixed to 
makom, "place," and to hu, "he." The Malays say, 
Pikulkan peti ini, " carry that box." Kan is the tran- 
1 Pallegoix' works are copious, but I have not access to them in Peking. 



260 



sitive or causative suffix to the verb pikul, " carry." 
Ini is the demonstrative pronoun " that." This idiom 
is in both languages only a particular case of the post- 
position of the adjective. The repetition of the article 
in Hebrew indicates that the order of the words is in 
such cases not the natural one. For, otherwise, why 
is the article repeated ? It may, then, be concluded 
that in the order of nature the adjective precedes its 
substantive ; and when the converse takes place, there 
is an inversion of the natural order. 

The Semitic principles occurring in the Malay 
tongue have been adverted to, while its resemblance 
to the Siamese has been more fully described. I shall 
now illustrate the connexion of the Polynesian family 
with Chinese, making use of the dialect of Ponape, 
in the Caroline group, as described by Dr. Grulick. 

The gender of nouns is distinguished by the use 
of special words attached to the nouns. In Chinese 
these words stand first. In Polynesia they come 
after. 

In regard to the number of nouns, it is in Chinese 
and the Polynesian languages known from the context, 
e.g., by that of the accompanying pronoun. 

In the Ponape dialect certain numerative particles 
are used with nouns. Thus, men follows animated 
objects, tun is used with bunches of fruit, urn with 
yams and bananas, pot with plants, sticks, and canoes. 
The same principle exists in Chinese and in Siamese. 



CHINESE AND POLYNESIAN CLASS- WORDS. 261 

Thus, the Siamese say, luk reu sang k'on, " two boat- 
men." Here sang, "two," is the Chinese shwang, 
" a pair." K'on is the nnmerative for " men." Luk 
reu is " boatmen." Reu is " boat." This in Chinese 
would be shut sheu Hang ho, " water hands two." In 
the combination Hang ko, "two," ko is the numerative 
of " men," shui sheu is " sailors." 

The numerative is necessary after numerals by a 
common linguistic law. The law of position is, how- 
ever, somewhat different in the examples. The Chinese 
say " water hands," and place the specific term before 
the generic. The Siamese and Polynesians prefer to 
say "men of the boat." In English we can speak 
in either way, but the order of nature is to place the 
specific word first, and there is something artificial 
about the inversion. When we say " sea birds," we 
adopt a mode of speech in genuine accordance with 
the spirit of our language. "Birds of the sea," on 
the other hand, is an expression belonging to a 
borrowed poetical vocabulary which is ultimately 
Semitic. 

The Polynesian languages have a double, series of 
some pronouns. When in addressing a person the 
speaker includes himself with the person addressed 
under one pronominal designation, it is called the 
inclusive pronoun. The Ponape dialect has a dual 
pronoun kita, "we," which is inclusive. So in 
northern Chinese tsa-men, "we," is distinguished from 



262 



wo-men, "we," by the circumstance that tsa-men in- 
cludes the person addressed, while wo-men does not. 
The origin of this inclusive pronoun for the first 
person is in Chinese probably the reflexive ts'i, in old 
Chinese zi, and in Latin se. The Chinese write it 
Ug tsa. This form is compounded of keu, " mouth," 
(referring to its being a common locution), and ts'i, 
" self," indicating that the makers of this modern 
logograph felt that this was the etymology of the 
word. We may suppose kita to be the other Chinese 
reflexive pronoun hi. The Chinese of books has no 
inclusive pronoun, as distinct from the ordinary per- 
sonal pronoun, but it may have existed in an ancient 
unwritten colloquial, and may have descended to the 
Polynesians from a common source. 

The Polynesian personal pronouns agree nearly with 
those of China. Of the first I have already spoken. 
The second is in Hawaii oe, in Tonga hoe, in Ponape 
kowe, in New Zealand koe. These I take to be the 
Chinese ni, u thou," "you." Old Chinese has f|f nu and 
U| ngi, and the initial ng is easily interchangeable 
with k and g, as in the Turkish ugli, " son," Chinese 
ngi, Mongol k'u, "begun." Hence the Polynesian form 
in k is accounted for. But ng as an initial is often 
dropped, as in the Chinese wo, " I," from ngo, the 
Hebrew Ayin from an original ng or g, etc. Thus the 
Hawaian oe, " thou," is also explained. With regard 
to the third personal pronoun, i 3 ya, and na, are the 



CHINESE AND POLYNESIAN PRONOUNS. 263 

prevailing forms. They agree with the Chinese i, 
"he," "that," and na, "that." 

We find, therefore, the European pronouns Ego, ich, 
vos, you, is, Hie, existing, not only in China, but also 
in the most remote Polynesian languages, at a distance 
from England of half the circumference of the globe, 
and yet capable of recognition with the help of the 
connecting link supplied by the old Chinese. 

The verbal directives in the Ponape dialect are 
another example of strong Chinese influence. F. 
Muller has not mentioned them in his otherwise full 
and valuable notices of Polynesian grammar. Nor 
are they referred to in Jones's "Notices of Siamese." 
It seems to me that they must exist in all the 
Polynesian dialects, as in that of Ponape. We have 
them in English in such expressions as go up, go down, 
go in, go out, where they are adverbs following verbs, 
and limiting the direction of the action in space. 
Hence the name verbal directives. In Chinese they 
are verbs in apposition. Tso hia is " sit down." Tso 
hia lai is also to " sit down," and consists of three verbs 
in apposition arranged in the order of time, thus " sit- 
down-come." Take another example, tseu tsin lai, 
" walk in," or " he walks in," literally, " walk- enter- 
come." Here the law of arrangement according to 
time is manifest. We may expect, then, to find verbs 
in all the English adverbs which are connected with 
verbs in this way. Thus " through," in the expression 



264 china's place in philology. 

" go through," in Grerman durch, is in Chinese t c ok or 
feu, "to pierce through." The Chinese say of a 
soaking rain that it has Ma Peu liau, "fallen 
thoroughly." Here t'eu means that it has penetrated 
the soil to the full depth required by the farmer. 

We find in the Ponape dialect the following pre- 
positions and adverbs used as space directives after 
verbs. La, "from," ta, "upwards," to, "downwards," 
we, "away from," i, "going off," long, "in," ung, "to," 
Jung, " from,'* pena, " together," pqjung, " separate." 
Thus wa la, " take from," tau ta, " climb up," ko ti, 
" come down," ko to, " come hither," ko long, " go 
in," ko ive, " go away," ko ung, " go to," ko jung, 
" go from," ko- pena, " go together," ko pajung, " go 
separate." 

Among these words may be noticed the Chinese zung 
or ts'ung, "from." The initial j is pronounced in 
Ponape like dj or sh, and is hard to write down. The 
word to, "down," is the Chinese toi, te, or ti, the 
Mongol dotai, " downwards," and the English " down." 
The Chinese shang, " above," " up," is not improbably 
the Ponape ta, "upwards," for in Cochin- Chinese t 
is the common equivalent of the Chinese sh. Thus in 
Morrone's Lexicon Cochin- Sinense the Chinese sound 
shing is detected in thua, " to conquer," " to remain 
over," " to abound." The Chinese k ( e shang, " travel- 
ling merchants, " is the basis of the disguised kach 
thua, having the same sense. Now we may naturally 



SEMITIC PRINCIPLES IN COMPARISON. 265 

expect to find that in a matter of this kind, what is 
true of the eastern Himalaic languages will be true of 
Polynesian languages. They will bear a similar re- 
lation to the Chinese. 

I may add that among the verb auxiliaries in the 
Ponape dialect is the causative prefix ka, kau, or ko, 
which corresponds with the Chinese ko* or kiau, " to 
cause," used commonly as a causative in modern 
dialects, and identical probably with the Latin causa. 

Such clear marks of consanguinity between the 
Chinese and Polynesian languages must be taken as 
proof, in opposition to F. Miiller, that there is no 
room to doubt their coming from one source. 

The laws of position and a common vocabulary 
connect the speech of the Pacific islanders with that 
of Siam, Cochin- China, and China. Where the law 
of position in the Himalaic type differs from that 
of China, Polynesia connects herself with Himalaya, 
and here, as it appears to me, is seen the action of a 
Semitic principle. 

It is worthy of remark that the Hebrew mode of 
comparing by the use of the preposition " from," 
min, is parallel to that of Ponape. In the Hebrew 
&y]fo pinp " sweeter than honey," |j& min, " from," 
is inserted after mathok, "sweet." The Ponapean says, 
met kajalel jung meteu, " this beautiful from that," in 
correct English, "this is more beautiful than that." 
The same idiom is found in the Tartar languages, as 



266 



CHINA S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



in colloquial Mongol enese sain, "better than this," 
or literally, "this from good." Here the preposition 
becomes a post-position by the Turanian inversion, 
and sain, " is good," stands last as being the predicate. 
There appears to be little ground for doubting that 
the Semitic idiom is the older, and that both the 
Turanian and. Polynesian have sprung from it. So 
also our English comparative degree, formed with than, 
must be referred to the same origin. This little word, 
which has long gone seeking in vain for a plausible 
parentage, is no other than the Turkish suffix dan, 
"from." Latham says, "than is a variety of then; 
the notions of order, sequence, and comparison being 
allied." If so, then the final n of both words is 
probably the Turkish post-position ni in kani, " where." 
This means "in," "within," "at," and is like the 
Chinese net, nip, "within," as before remarked. It 
may have been originally a demonstrative pronoun. 

So the English as, Gferman als, and Greek «?, are 
perhaps the Mongol ese, which means " from " and 
" than." The Turanian form is asa or ese, according 
as the vowel in the noun is in the series a, o, b, or in 
the series e, u, u. In Sanscrit the root appears as the 
demonstrative sa, without the prefix. In Chinese 
it is demonstrative tsi, si, reflexive dzi, or prepositional 
dzi, "from." Here also it is without the prefixed 
vowel. In Latin the reflexive se also occurs without 
the vowel. The Turanian influence has been strong 



POLYNESIAN ARITHMETIC. 267 

upon the Teutonic and Gothic portion of the Indo- 
European family, and has left its trace in the vowel 
initial of as anMals. The English z in as agrees with 
the old Chinese zi. The written Anglo-Saxon was 
swa. Anything nearer to it I cannot find in Yernon's 
Guide. ( The unwritten dialects, if known, would throw 
light on the form. There can be little doubt that the 
Persian ez, "from," is the same word. We have then 
the sonant form z in English, Persian, and old Chinese, 
and the surd s in German and Mongol. The modern 
Chinese form is ts'i. It appears then that in the 
comparison of adjectives the Ponapean dialect follows 
very widely spread continental models. 

So far from being a savage race originally, the 
Ponapeans, as their language shows, are an offshoot 
from the continent. In addition to the above instances 
of linguistic connexion with Asia, which might be 
easily increased by comparing, for instance, the demon- 
strative pronoun en, " this," with the Mongol ene, 
" this," it may be added that the Ponapeans count to 
ten, but beyond that number they become bewildered. 
Thus, ngavi is with them " ten of yams," but " one 
hundred of eggs or cocoa-nuts"; apuki," one hundred," 
(the Chinese pak) is "one hundred of men, trees, or 
yams," but "1,000 of eggs, cocoa-nuts, or stones." 
After centuries of isolation, Oceanic islanders lose the 
command of high numbers, and their value fluctuates 
or becomes lower in value. Thus, the Chinese man 



268 

(wan), "10,000/' retains its value among the natives 
of Samoa and Tonga, but when it reaches the Sandwich 
Islands it has already sunk to the value " 4000," and 
in New Zealand- it means "1000." 1 

F. Muller, after comparing the names of number 
from one to ten of the Malay and Polynesian lan- 
guages, says, " From the comparison of the foregoing 
names of number, we plainly see that, widely as the 
languages which use them are separated from each 
other, they branched off at a time when the speakers 
could count at least to a hundred. This is certainly 
a proof of the not limited intellectual gifts and early 
development of these peoples." (Page 287.) 

I would go a step further, and say that this fact, 
regarding the numbers 100 and 10,000, proves deterior- 
ation. The Polynesians could formerly use a decimal 
arithmetic. Whether they have adopted a quaternary 
or quinary arithmetic, it is probably on account of 
long-continued isolation, which tends to produce bar- 
barism. The Australian tribes have already exhausted 
the arithmetical faculty when they have arrived at 
four and five. The word kauwul-kauwul means with 
them either "five" or "very many." With another 



1 Samoa and Tonga lie between the Sandwich Islands and Xew Zealand, 
and, if the migration of the Polynesian islanders proceeded regularly by 
way of the Malayan archipelago, would be populated much sooner than 
those two more remote localities. In F. Muller's triple grouping of the 
languages, as the Malay, Polynesian, and Black-race groups, the islands 
mentioned all belong to the second. 



AMERICAN LANGUAGES. THEIR MIXED CHARACTER. 269 

tribe punku, " four," is also " many," and punhu kalan, 
" five," is " very many." Their ancestors when they 
left Asia could probably all count to ten. Are not 
the ten fingers the proper foundation of arithmetic ? 
All human races would still practise it but for the 
degrading effects of long- continued isolation. 

"Where the arithmetical faculty is weak, the names 
of number easily and rapidly change. The multipli- 
cation table would be soon lost to civilization if left in 
the hands of the dunces. It is the bright in intellect 
that preserve society from lapsing into barbarism, for 
they transmit to coming generations the treasured 
discoveries of the past. Among Oceanic islanders 
degradation is inevitable until they are visited by the 
light of Christian civilization. 

But easy as it is to lose the names of number, and 
especially those of high numbers, it is not likely that 
the traces of ancient knowledge will entirely disappear. 
Yestiges wanting in one island will be found to exist 
in another, and a wide recension may be expected to 
restore, piece by piece, the image of the buried past. 

The languages of the American continent form a 
portion of the field to be investigated before the 
position and relations of the Polynesian system can 
be accurately determined. As Turanian languages 
border on North America at Behring's Strait, so the 
Polynesian dialects approach both North and South 
America by the ocean. In the valuable collection of 



270 china's place in philology. 

Lord's Prayers in more than 600 languages and dia- 
lects, published by the Imperial Printing Office at 
Vienna, I have searched for dialects which by their 
syntax might be recognized as exclusively Turanian 
or exclusively Polynesian. None occur. The princi- 
ples of arrangement are so mixed and so evenly 
balanced that the principles of both families seem to 
be everywhere in operation. For example, in the 
Delaware language, alluded to in Cooper's romance, 
" The Last of the Mohicans," while it has case suffixes 
and the genitive before the nominative (Turanian), it 
has, on the other hand, the verb before the accusative 
and makes use of many prepositions (Polynesian). In 
the language of the Dacotahs, between the Mississippi 
and the Rocky Mountains, prefixes (Polynesian) pre- 
dominate over suffixes (Turanian). 

Among the Central American languages the Mexican 
is important. In no cal " my house," i cat, " his 
house," the order is Chinese and Turanian, as are the 
roots. In the Sandwich Islands, and other parts of 
Polynesia, hale means " house " also, but there the pos- 
sessive pronoun must follow its word. In Nicaragua 
the adjective rigidly follows its noun, which is a 
decidedly Polynesian feature. 

The language of the Incas in Peru, in having the 
adjective after the substantive, is Polynesian, but in 
having case suffixes and the verb at the end, is 
Turanian. Thus, they said Mango Capac, while we 



POLYNESIAN CIVILIZED IMMIGRATION. 271 

should say in English King Mango; and nocaicuman, 
"to us," where man is "to," and is the dative case 
suffix. 

In the language of the Caribs, whom the discoverer 
of the American continent found in the West India 
Islands, there are case suffixes, and "the verb pre- 
cedes the accusative. They distinguish the elder and 
younger brother by different words, as is done in all 
the Polynesian and Turanian languages. Their speech 
is classed with the South American division of Indian 
languages. 

We are warranted by these linguistic data in con- 
cluding that there was a Polynesian immigration from 
the ocean, and a Turanian immigration by the Aleutian 
Islands, and by Iceland" and Greenland, which united 
to form the population of the American continent. 
The influx of ocean tribes would be favoured by the 
former existence of extensive lands in the Pacific, now 
submerged. Chinese tradition speaks of a chain of 
large kingdoms stretching from Japan to California, 
through which Buddhism was zealously propagated. 
These notices, belonging to the fifth century of our 
era, should not be forgotten, though it is not safe to 
build much upon them. 

The Polynesian element was the more civilized, and 
to this must be attributed the main influence in the 
production of the civilization of the Aztecs and Incas. 
The Turanian element was the more simple, and to 



272 china's place in philology. 

this may be ascribed the doctrine of the Great Spirit, 
and the other religious views of the less civilized tribes 
of North America. The Polynesian element prevailed 
most on the western shores of the continent. The 
forms of science and art, national polity and belief, 
found there by the Spaniards, agree best with those of 
Southern Asia. The Turanian mould of thought and 
belief extended itself rather along the northern and 
eastern portions of the continent, and exists among 
the Siberian tribes in a similar way. The modern 
Polynesians residing on a thousand isolated points 
scattered over the ocean, have lost the civilization they 
once possessed, and have not been able, on account of 
their insular position, to advance in the intellectual 
sphere, as did the Aztecs and Tncas, but their religious 
and mythological traditions point to India and Western 
Asia as their source. The tradition of a deluge and 
an ark follows the line of Semitic principles of 
language through the mountain homes of the Karens 
to the ocean, and proceeds by the Sandwich and other 
islands in the Pacific to Mexico. The belief in the 
divinity of serpents exists in the Fiji Islands, as it 
formerly did in the land of Montezuma. This is both 
Hindu and Babylonian, and seems to have sprung out 
of the narrative of the Fall in the Book of Gfenesis. 
Cycles in time terminated by a catastrophe are almost 
necessarily to be regarded as of Hindu or Chaldean 
origin. The Mexican belief in the Age of the Earth 



POLYNESIAN CIVILIZED IMMIGRATION. 273 

(corresponding to the Satyayuga of Hindostan, and 
extending to 5206 years), of Fire, of Tempests, of 
Water, and of the present Age, 1 may be best traced 
to India and Babylon. Mr. Hardwick says in regard 
to the American traditions of the Deluge, " So nume- 
rous, and so extremely arbitrary, are the points in 
which those legends are now found to have approached 
the sacred story, that some affinity between the two 
is generally recognized, except where an archaeologist 
or schoolman is incorrigibly blinded by his love 
of system-building. Even the divines of Germany, 
beneath whose shadow every kind of mythic theory 
has sprung up with rank luxuriance, seem to have 
been almost reconciled to a belief that the traditions 
now and formerly current in America respecting some 
great deluge must have all been carried over from the 
old Continent.' ' 

As the proof from language proceeds side by side 
with that from historical and religious tradition, we 
are driven to the conclusion that the Polynesian and 
American races are Post-Diluvian, and of the same 
ancestry with ourselves. " Ought we not/' says l A. 
von Humboldt, "to recognize the traces of .a common 
origin wherever the cosmological ideas and first tra- 
ditions of peoples offer striking analogies even in 
unimportant matters ? " 

1 Hardwick' s Christ and other Masters, part iii., p. 160. 

1 Hardwick cites this passage in p. 164 from " Vues des Cordilleres." 

i 

18 



CHAPTER XII. 

The Sanscrit Language. — Sanscrit Eichness in Forms. — Its 
Principles of Development Based on Older Systems. — 
Alphabet. — Syllable. — Prefix of S. — Insertion of R and L. — 
Polysyllabic Word. — Declension. — Case Suffixes. — Plural. 
— Gender. — Comparison of Adjectives.— Pronouns. — Deriva- 
tive Verbs. — Personal Endings. — Tense Marks. — Potential 
and Conditional Mood. — Infinitive. — Participle. — Auxiliary 
Verbs. — Adverbial Suffixes. — Prepositions. — Compounds. — 
Laws of Position. — Zend Syntax. 

In passing to the Indo-European languages, the 
Sanscrit first claims attention. The remarkable com- 
pleteness of its grammatical forms has attracted the 
admiration of philologists. The same analytical 
genius which aided Panini in the arrangement of 
Indian grammar, many centuries after it attained its 
perfection as a language, aided his forefathers un- 
consciously in its gradual formation. The peculiar 
intellectual attributes of a nation are first recognized 
in the germ in their language, and afterwards in the 
fruit in their literature. Languages are rich, noble, 
and worthy of study in close proportion to the political 
and literary development of the people that speak 
them. The merit of Sanscrit consists in its richness 
in forms, and its orderly development. 



SANSCRIT ALPHABET. 275 

The origin of the peculiar principles of the Sanscrit 
grammar must be looked for in the families of language 
which existed previously. Such signs of Semitic in- 
fluence as appear in Sanscrit may be due to an ancient 
residence in Armenia, or somewhere in that region, 
when they were neighbours to the Semites. The 
traditions of Sanscrit and Zend literature point to an 
old national home in Bucharia. Here the tribes that 
spoke these languages were in proximity to Turanian 
races, and on the south with the occupants of Persia 
and Aflghanistan, at that time probably speaking 
a Semite language. But as there was an ancient 
Turanian occupation of Asia Minor, the original 
Sanscrit type would also easily gather Turanian 
elements during a possible older residence west of 
the Caspian. 

Alphabet. 

The peculiar double development of the t series 
may be ascribed to Dravidian influence. The dental 
series, t, P 9 d, d ( , n, is that which Sanscrit has in 
common with western languages and those of Eastern 
Asia. The cerebral series, t, /', d, d', n, links the 
Sanscrit with the Tamil and its sister-dialects. Let 
it be considered that in the Tamil there are a dental, 
a palatal, and a cerebral n, and a dental, palatal, and 
cerebral r; that there are three t sounds, and two / 
sounds. As these varieties do not exist north of the 



276 



Himalaya mountains, they may be supposed to be due 
partly to climate, and to have existed already in 
Dravidian languages before the speakers of Sanscrit 
entered the Indian peninsula. 

The aspirated k, t, p, ch, may be traced to a 
Tartar origin. These letters in Mongol, Manchu, and 
Turkish are always aspirated. It is in that part of 
the world the normal way of pronouncing them. An 
unaspirated t would there be counted as d. Thus, in 
Manchu writing a dot on the right changes an aspirated 
k into g. 

The aspirated series, gh, dh, bh, jh, has perhaps 
been originated by the Hindoos, from an unconscious 
tendency to make the sonants as complete as the surds. 

The unaspirated surd series, k } t, p, ch, seems to 
have been formed by the common ancestors of the 
Indo-European languages from the older series, g, d, b. 

The Mongol gar, "hand," is in Sanscrit kara, and 
in Greek %dp. Thus Gfrimm's law is the Indo- 
European expression of a wider law embracing all the 
Asiatic families, by which unaspirated and aspirated 
surds are both formed from an older sonant series 
existing in Turanian, Semitic, and old Chinese. 

No family has ever been so creative in politics, in 
literature, in the arts, and in language, as the Indo- 
European. It was suitable that they should start on 
their wonderful career with a more perfect alphabet 
than had hitherto satisfied the wants of nations. The 



SANSCRIT ALPHABET. 277 

Turanian alphabet was deficient in surd sounds. The 
Indo-Europeans developed them by the exercise of a 
powerful instinct, and thus succeeded in so widening 
the bounds of the alphabet as to adapt it for embracing 
the vast variety of new grammatical forms, and new 
names of things and actions, which Sanscrit, Greek, 
Latin, grerman, and English require. In this they 
appear to have been assisted by the Semites, who at 
a very ancient period added k, p, and t to the still 
older by g, and d. The Semites, however, never arrived 
at the • evolution of so copious an alphabet as their 
younger brothers, the descendants of Japheth. 

The Sanscrit ch corresponds to the Chinese h. In 
the Indo-European languages generally k has shown a 
tendency to change into ch. In Italian Cicero became 
Chichero. In English /cvpt,afcrj, or kirche, became church. 
In Russian castus, " pure/' is chisto. This law of 
change, belonging to all the languages, must have 
commenced before the separation into dialects. It 
does not affect the eastern Asiatic languages. Yery 
recently, however, it has made its appearance in 
Chinese. Thus, in Northern and "Western China king, 
"to honour," is now pronounced ching. The law of 
change which usually corresponds in Eastern Asia to 
that of k to ch in Europe, is that of t to ch. This 
exists alike in Chinese and in the Turanian languages. 

Example. Chitra, " paint," " wonder," Chinese him, 
git, "paint," k% gi, "to wonder," kicai, hat, "strange." 



278 china's place in philology. 

The Sanscrit v corresponds to the Chinese w. In 
Chinese, for instance, Jg wet, wat, is " to place rollnd, ,, 
"inclose." .The round covering of a cart, a tent, 
a curtain, and a low circumscribing wall, are called 
wei. The Tamil has vat tarn, " circle," " revolution in 
an orbit," " halo." The Sanscrit has vad, " surround," 
vada, " circle " ; Latin verto, " turn," volvo, " revolve." 

The consonant /, wanting in Sanscrit, was probably 
also unknown to the old Turanian language, on which 
it was based, for it is not found in Mongol, or in the 
old Chinese. 

The Syllable. 

The inherency of a in all consonants having no 
other vowel mark coming after them means that the 
Sanscrit- speaking people lost the habit of ending a 
syllable with a consonant. There need be no hesitation 
on this account in ascribing to the mother- tongue of 
the Indo-European family a syllabary of which one 
characteristic was the possession of final consonants. 
The Sanscrit roots are represented by the Indian 
grammarians as ending in many instances with con- 
sonants. Also many syllables actually end with the 
consonants n, m, t, d, k, r, etc. Hence the law of 
Sanscrit grammar here referred to is not strictly true. 
It is certain, however, that the tendency of ancient 
Hindoo pronunciation was towards vowel endings, just 
as is found to be the case with the Japanese syllabary 



SANSCRIT SYLLABLE. 279 

as compared with the Mongol. This may be due to 
the enervation consequent on change to a warmer 
climate. The Greeks and Latins had much fewer 
consonantal endings than the English and Germans 
now use. 

The Semites and Turanians agreed in introducing 
r, l y s, among the final consonants of their syllabaries. 
They were followed by the speakers of Sanscrit. When 
words belonging to these languages are compared with 
the Chinese roots, such finals seem to be phonetic 
additions rather than changed finals. The Chinese he, 
" black," in the old language kek, appears in Sanscrit 
as k&la and kdka, and in Mongol as hara or k'ara. The 
/ and r are here introduced in place of a lost k. But 
it would be improper to say that k had become meta- 
morphosed into either of these letters. With t and d 
final the case is different. These letters have a natural 
affinity for r and /, and interchange is not uncommon. 
Thus, the Cochin- Chinese dat, "earth," suggests that 
there was once an appendage consisting of t or d to 
the Chinese jjj ti, in the old language da. The 
Sanscrit form is dhara and the Latin terra. The 
Hebrew arets and the English earth seem to be con- 
nected by a change from d to r, and the prefixing of 
the vowel a. The r of the Sanscrit and Latin forms 
may be changed from the old final d or t. 

That the connexion between the Chinese syllable 
and the Indo-European syllable is to be brought to 



280 china's place in philology. 

light through intermediate Turanian links cannot 
be doubted, when it is observed that these final r's 
and l's, coming in place of the Chinese t, occur not 
infrequently in Indo-European and Tartar languages. 
Chinese sat, " scatter," " sow," Mongol sargigolhu, 
"scatter," Latin sero, "sow," Tamil sidaru, "scatter." 
One of the most striking differences observable 
between the Sanscrit and Mongol syllable is the pre- 
fixing of s to other consonants in the former. As 
this is a permanent feature in all the Indo-European 
languages, it must have originated before their separa- 
tion. It was probably an intensitive. The Semitic 
roots which appear to have received s or sh as a 
prefix modify their sense so as to be in harmony 
with the idea that the sibilant was intensitive. East 
of the Sanscrit and Persian there are absolutely no 
examples of an s prefixed to the root. In comparing 
western words, it is necessary, therefore, to strip them 
first of this appendage. Thus, stand, sto, umj/ju, 
in Sanscrit st'al, " to stand," st'&na, " a place," 
"situation," may be be referred to the Chinese equi- 
valent by removing s. The final t of the Chinese 
word |i) dat, " to tread upon," is found in the Sanscrit 
st'ita, " steady," and in the English stead, steady. The 
Arabic has ddsa, " tread," and the Hebrew nathan, " to 
place," where the n does not seem to be radical. 
Compare in Tamil tandu, tdl, "stand," Tibetan ten, 
" to halt." The root tat or dad, tan or dan, is probably 



INSERTION OF R AND L. 281 

imitated from the natural sound of the foot striking 
the ground. 

Another example is jgj c'hu, old form tok, " to 
pierce," stechen, stick, stigo, stingo, sting, ari^co, Anglo- 
Saxon stechen, "to stick in," sticcels, German stachel, 
English stickle. The Sanscrit is stak. 1 

A change of almost equal importance, as adding 
greatly to the number of syllables, was the introduction 
of r and I between the initial consonant and the vowel. 
Thus, krit, "to cut," krishna, "black," kri, "to do," in 
Mongol hadahu, "to reap," hara, "black," hihu, "to do." 
Compare cut, cutter, ccedo, Hebrew gadang, JH3 an( ^ ^3pj 
Tamil katti, "knife," and for kri, "do," the Chinese 
hing, old form gang, "to do," "to go," recollecting that 
the loss of final ng is a common circumstance in 
Chinese words. 

As an example of the insertion of I may be mentioned 
kapdla, " skull," also karpara, Latin calva, Sclavonic 
glava and golova, "head," Gferman Kopf, Haupt, "head." 
We have dropped the p in our word head, but the 
German restores it to view. Greek /cecfraXrj, Latin 
caput. The Chinese is tip kap, "head of a series," 
" shell of a tortoise," " coat of mail," " a cover," " to 

1 Compare ap.vpva, myrrh, darben, " starve," nose, sneeze, pike, spike, as 
examples where the prefix of s has been so recent that it exists in some 
languages and is wanting in others. Observe also that sh is prefixed in 
Sanscrit and German, while English, Latin, and Greek refuse to admit it. 
Schmerzen, smart, Schmidt, smith. Compare amartts, "bitter," miide, 
" toil." 



282 



cover." In this last sense the Sanscrit has kub and 
kubh, "to cover," which may be compared with the 
Greek KpvTrrco, "hide," and KokvirTG), "cover." In 
Mongol we find hobc'Ms, " clothing," and habhan, " a 
covering." The Hebrew has !%$, "he covered," 
" expiated," and the Arabic ghufran, " pardon," ghayb, 
"hidden." 

The occurrence of KaXvirra) with a vowel preceding 
the inserted I shows how the syllabary may acquire a 
new extension. The monosyllabic root thus becomes 
dissyllabic without either prefix or suffix. Instances, 
however, of this sort of extension among European 
roots are comparatively rare. 

Another mode of extending the primitive syllable 
is to insert r and / before the final consonant, as in 
karpara, " the skull," from the root kap ; kart, " to 
cut," from the root cut. Compare the English work 
with the Latin ago, actus. 

The Polysyllabic Word. 

The monosyllable needed to be lengthened and 
endowed with a more perfect and beautiful form. Just 
as among the works of the Creator are found first 
ferns and mosses, and afterwards grasses and trees and 
all the rich variety of flowering plants, so the plain 
and unattractive words of the most ancient men were 
destined to expand into the ever-changing abundance 
and beauty of the Indo-European vocabulary. 



FORMATION OF THE POLYSYLLABLE. 283 

With the expansion of the monosyllabic root into a 
polysyllable by prefixes, suffixes, and inserted letters, 
the subject of derivation is inseparably connected. 
Take an example from the Sanscrit vocabulary. 

The old English quoth is in Sanscrit kat 1 , "to 
speak." From this is formed kat'aka, " a speaker," 
by appending a demonstrative pronoun ka, the English 
he, and the Chinese gi, "he," ku, "that." The Chinese 
hwa, " words," " to speak," is the same word, the old 
form being gat. In Mongol helhu, "to speak," takes 
c'hi in place of hu, to express the agent. In helchi, 
"the speaker," or "he who speaks," the syllable c'hi 
is also a demonstrative, the Chinese t's'i, "this," and 
the Sanscrit sa, " he." 

Another suffix which presents itself is n, as in 
kat'ana, " saying," a neuter noun. In Mongol we have 
helen, occurring as one of those substantive forms of 
the verb which we call infinitive or gerund. 

The same suffix meets us in the participles, as in 
karin, " a doer," from kri ; gh&tin, "a killer," from 
han; sdyin, "a sleeper," from si 1 (Chinese shut). In 
these cases the word in n is either a noun of agency 
or a present participle. The English participle in ing, 
formerly in (Latham's English Language), limits itself 
to the sense of a participle and infinitive, leaving the 
expression of agency to the suffix r, as in lover, 2 loving. 

1 "Williams's Sanscrit Grammar. 

2 The suffix r for agency may be changed from s, as was is called in the 
west of England war. It may then be regarded as the demonstrative in s. 



284 



Other forms from kat are kat l angkatHka, "an interro- 
gator," kat'angkat'ikafra, " question," kat'angkatHta, 
" questioner," kat'aniya, " that may be told," kat'anta, 
"inquiry," kat' a, "word," "tale," kat'dnurdga, "atten- 
tive to what is said," kat'ika, "story-teller," kat'ita, 



^ Among them the suffix ta or td, used of an agent or 
participially, is found in the Chinese gfjf ti, %j che 
(old form ta), and in the Mongol gerund or past 
participle heled. 

The Sanscrit chitra, "painting," "to paint," forms 
chitraka, "a painter." This word is lengthened into 
chitrakara and chitrakdra, both meaning "painter." 
Chitratala is "painted like a floor." Chitralikh and 
chitrakrit mean " painter." Chitragata is " painted." 
Chitrala is "variegated." Chitralekhd is a " picture." 
Compare with this family of words the Chinese hicei 
or gat, " to paint," the Tibetan skud, " to smear," " to 
mark," kud-pa-po, "a marker," "painter," kus-pa, 
" smeared," and the Russian chertit, " to paint," cherta, 
" a line," ocherk, " a line." 

The suffixes rag a, rege, are quite common in Mongol. 
So also are Jig, al, el, del, ga. Thus, t'erege, " a 
cart," is formed from the Chinese c ( he, formerly t'e ; 
c'hic'higlig, " a garden," is formed from tfhic'hig, " a 
flower"; ujel, "a mode of viewing things," comes 
from ujiliu, "to see"; sigudel, "judgment," comes from 
siguhu, " to judge." 



THE FORMATION OF CASES. 285 

The Tamil derivatives from kdtu, " to kill," are 
kdtakam, kdtam, "killing," kdtakan, "a killer," kdtal, 
" act of killing," kdtei, " killing." 

It appears, then, that the Sanscrit derivative nouns 
are formed by appending syllables which bear a strong 
resemblance to similar syllables in Mongol. Forms 
are, however, more numerous in Sanscrit, which admits 
compounds, than in Mongol, which does not. Thus, 
chitrakrit is formed from kri, "make," joined with 
chitra, "painting." 

Declension. Case. 

The Turanian languages had formed cases of nouns 
before they were known in the Indo-European family. 
All the best Turanian types have them. The Sanscrit 
shows a more close kinship with its Turanian cousins in 
this respect than any other Indo-European language, 
because it does not use prepositions at all to express the 
relations of nouns to each other. The words for from, 
to, in, out, by, etc., come after the noun, as they do in 
all true members of the Turanian family. The other 
Indo-European languages use these prepositions plenti- 
fully before their nouns. The Sanscrit has come, 
therefore, more fully under the control of Turanian 
principles than any other member of the family. Yet 
a distinction remains to the Sanscrit which forbids our 
classing it among Turanian languages. It uses pre- 
positions copiously as inseparable prefixes to roots, just 



286 



as did the Greeks and Latins. But it is contrary to 
the nature of the Turanian system to do this. 

The resemblances noticeable between the Sanscrit 
case suffixes and those of the Turanian system have 
already been examined. Obvious as they are, it would 
be wrong to say that the only influence at work in 
the formation of the declension was the Turanian. 
The Semitic system has had an effect of its own 
peculiar kind. It has given genders to the nouns and 
perhaps the accusative case in m. It has also added 
a dual number. 

The letter m plays an important part in Semitic 
grammar. It serves to form a plural im for the 
masculine gender, and is then a suffix. It is also a 
prefix to denote participles in Piel, Hiphil, etc. It 
marks an infinitive or supine in Numbers x. 2, fc$*1p]b ? 
" to call/' said of the use to which the silver trumpets, 
ordered to be made by Moses, were to be applied — 
" to call the assembly.'' Then it is further used as a 
prefix in verbal nouns, as mishpat, "judgment," moda]}, 
" acquaintance," from shaphat, " to judge," and yadcfy, 
"to know." It is also met with in the dual, where 
dyim is used instead of the plural im. 

As a common interrogative in Hebrew, ma would, 
it is likely, be originally demonstrative, and in that 
state it might originate the Dravidian plural suffix 
mar and the Sanscrit accusative in m, as well as the 
Semitic plural suffix and the participial prefix just 



CASE SUFFIXES. 287 

described. This explanation of the Sanscrit accusative 

is the more probable, seeing that neuter nouns take am 

in the nominative, as well as in the accusative ; and 

in Tamil and Mongol 1 m is a very common suffix to 

nouns, and makes a plural in Tamil. 

Bopp refers all case suffixes to a pronominal origin, 

and points to the pronoun imau, "these two," ime, 

" these," as the source of the accusative ending in m. 

His view of the origin of the cases appears to me to 

be wanting in convincing evidence in some respects. 

Thus, the instrumental and some other suffixes must, 

if viewed under the light of Chinese grammar, be 

regarded as true verbs. Bopp, however, was not 

willing to allow them to be other than pronouns. I 

believe them to have been both. The following are 

reasons for this opinion. First, it is more natural 

when motion towards or from, making use of or giving to, 

have to be spoken of, to employ verbs to express these 

ideas. They are really verbs, and no word could easily 

be employed to describe them without its having a 

verb sense. Secondly, if pronouns are employed as 

dative, instrumental, and ablative case suffixes, it should 

be allowed that, since they are used with such a force, 

they have already a signification as verbs. Thirdly, 

the Chinese demonstratives agree in form with certain 

common verbs meaning " follow," " give to," " carry," 

"bring," "do," "be." 

1 Compare hugjim, " music," the Chinese gak ; also the pronouns t'im, 
yim, " that sort of," u this sort of." 



288 china's place in philology. 

{£ zung, "follow," "from." 
g zi, "from," "self," "spontaneously." 
flfc t'rn, $f si, "this," % t'si, "give," ft s^, "give." 
g^ ^^ "that," ^ wap, "carry," "capture." 
fp e, " he," £J[ e, " make use of," " other," eo, ibam, 
ivit, " go." 

ft pi, " he," " that," pet, " give," " go away," 
" another." 

% Pa, " other," " he," " to draw," " drag." 
f£ i, " that," jg «?et, " be," " become," " do," 
"action," "that." 
% zhi, "this," "is," "be." 

The ideas of existence, transitive action, self, other, 
carrying, following, moving, are all mixed in confusion 
in these words. 1 

Probably the verb sense was the earliest, for to this 
a name would be most easily applied. The notion of 
the demonstrative pronoun would be a little more 
abstract, and therefore less easy for primitive man to 
grasp. He would see motion. He would hear a 
sound. The motion would be named from the sound. 
Thus the verb would first obtain a name. Early 
names for "walk," "move," "go," "carry," would 
thus come into use. With a small stock of verbs 
primitive man would be prepared to fix on his demon- 
strative and other pronouns. The name of an action 

1 For some criticisms on Bopp's views on this subject, see article on 
Language in the English Cyclopsedia. 



NUMBER. 289 

would be applied to the actor who was seen performing 
it, or to the place or time in which he performed it. 
As the actor is not always known, the pronoun thus 
acquired would also naturally be assigned to positions 
in space and time. Thus true pronouns, prepositions, 
and adverbs would be formed to express all spatial 
relations^ This seems to be the true reason of the fact, 
that some of the commonest Chinese verbs coincide in 
sound (though usually differing in tone) from the most 
ancient and widely spread pronouns. 

Since Bopp's time all philologists seem to agree in 
accepting the view that case suffixes are of pronominal 
origin. Yet it may not be considered superfluous to 
remark, in proof of the pronominal origin of the 
accusative in m, so widely spread in Sanscrit, Latin, 
German, and English, 1 that the corresponding Turanian 
accusative suffixes gi, i, ni, a, etc., are all easily reduced 
to demonstrative roots. 

The Greek, Zend, and Sanscrit languages were 
spoken by nations in very near relations with Semitic 
peoples, and none of the other Indo-European races 
have had so full a development of the dual as these 
three. "We can then only regard the dual number as 
of Semitic origin. It does not appear in the Hamite 
languages. Thus we are shut up to this hypothesis. 

The Sanscrit mark of the nominative plural is h, 
corresponding to the Greek, Latin, and English s. 
1 Compare the English him, whom, them. 

19 



290 china's place in philology. 

The Mongol has s and d. Perhaps all meet in the 
Hebrew th, For s and t are interchangeable letters. 
The genitive plural in m, so extensively used in 
Sanscrit, Zend, and Latin, may be referred to the 
Hebrew plural in im, and ultimately to the demon- 
strative in m. Bopp finds the demonstrative ma in 
the Greek /nev and the old Latin emem. I would add 
the Chinese men, " some one," the Siamese and Malay 
second personal pronoun men, mu, and the European 
words mutti, much, many, magnus. So the Chinese ta, 
" many," da, " great," * may be referred, with some 
probability, to the demonstrative root t. 

As the Semitic dual is formed from the plural by 
slightly altering the suffix, that is, by changing im 
to dyim, or th to thdyim, so the Sanscrit dual is formed 
from the plural by changing, e.g., as to au (Bopp, 
§ 206) in the nominative, am to oh in the genitive, 
and so on. 

Gender. 

The triple distinction of gender, as masculine, femi- 
nine, or neuter, found in Sanscrit and other Indo- 
European languages, we may suppose to have originated 
among a Semitic or Hamitic people, and to have been 
carried on to its completion by the Indo-Europeans. 
If the Hamites were not sufficiently imaginative to 
personify natural objects, the credit of this creation 
1 In Mandarin to and ta. 



GENDER OF NOUNS. 291 

must be allowed to the Semites, of whose tendencies 
to view nature with a poetic eye we have such 
abundant proofs. But the mythological creations of 
the Egyptian mind (unless they sprang from Shemite 
teaching) may well suggest that the gift of imagin- 
ation was shared by some at least of the Hamites. 
The mark of the feminine in old Egyptian was t, and 
this agrees with the Hebrew feminine- ending th, some- 
times shortened to h. (See Ges. Heb. Gr., § 79.) 

The Indo-Europeans were likewise highly imagin- 
ative, and they adopted with avidity from both 
Hamites and Semites their personifications, alike in 
grammar and in mythology. They also carried 
forward the distinction of genders to its completion 
by adding a third form, the neuter. 

To the ancient Hebrew, while his language was in 
course of formation, inanimate objects were by the 
poetic faculty endowed with life and distinguished as 
masculine or feminine. Strong and powerful objects 
appeared as masculine. Those which are easily asso- 
ciated with weakness and timidity were regarded as 
feminine (Ges. Heb. Gr., § 105). But strength and 
power can be attributed to few things, and conse- 
quently the majority of the names of inanimate objects 
are feminine. Abstract ideas, offices, and collectives 
are usually feminine. 

Objects seized upon by the imaginative nations as 
suitable for mythological personification are in Hebrew 



292 china's place in philology. 

nearly all masculine. Cloud, rain, morning, tree, heaven, 
sun, moon, river, mountain^ light, are examples. 

Among words occasionally feminine are evening, sun, 
fire, cloud, wind. Of these the last is rarely masculine. 
Name, blood, city, are masculine. 

In Sanscrit sun, moon, soul (atman), head, mountain, 
tree, evening, are masculine. Earth, night, light, life, 
heaven, river, are feminine. Dawn, mind (manas), blood, 
honey, deed, water, gift, are neuter. 

When the Greek and Latin languages made the 
moon feminine, they departed from the usage of the 
Hebrew and Sanscrit. In all the four languages life 
is feminine. River is masculine in Hebrew, Greek, 
and Latin. In Sanscrit it is feminine. Wind is 
feminine in Hebrew, but masculine in Greek (cive/mos) 
and Latin. The Greek has also a neuter word, irvevfia. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

If Bopp's explanation of the Sanscrit comparative 
degree in tar a, as derived from tar, "to pass beyond," 
is open to any doubt, I would suggest that it should 
be considered whether the Mongol demonstrative fere 
may not have originated it. It has its source in the 
primitive root t'a, "other," "he." Its force would 
be, after the word good, for instance, " that other is 
good." The Manchu ere, "this," would furnish an 
explanation of the Latin or, in melior, "better," and 
the Mongol ene might be adduced to throw light 



PRONOUNS. 293 

on the Greek comparative cov, in /caXkiav, " more 
beautiful." 

The Mongols say Pimu, for " such," Puilin bogda, for 
"extremely wise and holy," and demile airiben baina, 
for " there are very many." Here demile means 
"very," baina, "to be," and airiben, "many." Perhaps 
an explanation of the Sanscrit superlative in tama 
may be found in this last form. In Latin the sim in 
carissimus, "most dear," and pessimus, "the worst," 
may be the same word with the t changed to s. 

Personal Pronouns. 

First Person. Aham, " I." The Chinese nga, and 
Mongol na in namai, " me," etc. The forms in m are 
identical with the Mongol bi, "I," minu, "of me," 
but instead of being limited to the nominative and 
genitive, they are extended to all the cases. The 
accusative mam has the demonstrative in m for its final 
letter. The instrumental mayd has the Chinese ,£J[ 
yi, " to take," as its suffix, or, in other words, the 
demonstrative in i. The dative mahyam has the 
Chinese ^ | " give to," and the demonstrative m 
for its suffix. The ablative mat has the demonstrative 
in t for its ending. The genitive mama and locative 
mayi have respectively the demonstrative in m and 
the Chinese J£ yu, "at," "in," for their ending. 

The plural vayam is apparently the Chinese ^ yu, 
"I," and the English we. The oblique cases in the 



294 china's place in philology. 

plural are, accusative asmdn, indicative asmdbhih, dative 
asmabhyam, ablative asmat, genitive asmdkam, locative 
asmdsu. Bopp regards the initial a as meaning "I," 
and the whole of the remainder as demonstrative. 1 I 
would draw attention to the modern Chinese plural 
suffix jpj men in women, " we," the causative pet, the 
dative pet, the demonstrative elements k, t, m, and the 
preposition ^ tsai, ze, as throwing light on these 
forms. 

Second Person. — As in the first person, there is a 
mixture of three roots, aha, ma, wa, corresponding to 
the na, hi, mi, of Mongol, so in the second we have 
twa, yu, corresponding to the Mongol c'hi, Pa. In 
the first person the speakers of Sanscrit selected 
na and mi, and made no use of hi, except in the 
substantive verb. In the second they neglected c'hi, 
and made use of Pa in the singular and the Chinese 
nu in the plural. The n is lost, as is the case in the 
Latin vos and English we. 

Third Person. — The nominative sah is found in the 
Chinese J^ ts'i and jtjf si, " this." The old form of 
both these words was si. The ta of the accusative 
tarn, instrumental tena, dative tasmai, ablative tasmdt, 
genitive tasya, locative tasmin, is the Chinese fg di, 
£ ti, fj$ ti, 38 te, "this," and flj, Pa, "that," "other," 
with the Mongol Pere, " that." The inserted m in 

1 In the Shanghai dialect " we " is ngu ni, " I you " ; " you " is nung 
na, " you he." 



PRONOUNS. 295 

three of the oblique cases resembles that of the Mongol 
second person, which has in the dative and locative 
c'himador, accusative c'himai, indicative c'himaber, &hi- 
maloga, ablative c'hima ec'he. This similarity becomes 
still closer when it is remembered that the second 
person usually takes origin from the third. The Greek 
av and Mongol si (old form of c'M) help to connect 
the Sanscrit tvam, Latin tu, English thou, with the 
Chinese si and ti, " this," " him." 

Demonstrative and Belative. 

The demonstrative ayam, " this/' accusative imam, is 
the Chinese ffi i, and Mongol ino, ano, and ene. 
Compare also the Mongol im, " such a," "so," as in 
im yehe, "so large." 

The Sanscrit relative is formed from this demon- 
strative, as the Latin qui and the English who are 
derived from the demonstrative in k. The Turanians, 
like the Chinese, are without a full relative, and the 
appearance of this feature in the Indo-European lan- 
guages must be attributed to Semite influence. 

The Hebrew asher, " who," " which," may be 
compared with the Chinese Pj| shut, "who?" "who- 
ever," ^ shi, " this." The old forms of these 
words would be zhi and perhaps zhid. They are 
found in the oldest remains of Chinese literature. 
I suppose the demonstrative to have been first, then 
the interrogative, and lastly the relative. Since the 



296 



demonstrative and interrogative are paired together, 
as words alike in form in so many languages, 
there can be no doubt of their identity of origin. 
How easy is the transition from the one to the pother 
may be seen, for instance, in that ? as distinguished 
from that. But when the interrogatives that ? and 
who ? and which ? are formed from the demonstratives 
that and he, sl transition just as easy changes the 
interrogative into a relative, and advances language 
on the path of progress another stage. A tone of the 
voice divides the word that ? when it asks a question, 
from that, when it points to some object ; and a change 
to another position in the sentence distinguishes the 
relative that from the demonstrative that, e.g., That 
watch, That watch ? and The watch that he made. 
The history of the formation of all relatives was very 
much like this. The Hebrew relative asher, then, may 
be supposed to have come out of the Chinese demon- 
strative and interrogative root in zhi, unless it be 
formed from the demonstrative in t, by change of t 
to sh. 

The reason why the Eastern Asiatic nations did not 
adopt a relative with full powers is found in the nature 
of their grammar. The subordinate sentence must in 
their languages come before the principal one. A 
sentence whose nominative is a relative pronoun is 
with them a subordinate sentence, and speech cannot 
in their languages expand itself by a series of subor- 



PRONOUNS. 297 

dinate or circumstantial clauses coming after that 
which contains the nominative and principal yerb. 

It was the triumph of Semitic grammar, by simply 
drawing back the verb to the beginning of the sen- 
tence, to leave the way open for a concatenation of 
clauses to follow, which might commence at discretion 
with conjunctions or the relative pronoun. This 
afforded a facility and easy sequence to the expression 
of thought, which is unknown in Eastern Asia. 

The Indo-Europeans took from the Semites this 
feature, and hence the origin of the relative pronoun 
in their grammar. 

Interrogative Pronoun. 

The interrogative leak, ham, kena, etc., is the same 
word as the Mongol hen, "who?" This is proved 
by the related interrogative adverbs, viz., kati, 
"how many?" kada, "when?" corresponding to 
the Mongol heden, "how many?" hejiye (j for d), 
"when?" 

The Sanscrit relative yah appears in Mongol as one 
of the interrogatives, and is conjugated like other 
adverbs. We find the forms yambor, "what?" yago, 
" what ?" yagahin, yagahinem, yagahihu, yagonhihu, 
"how?" yagahiju, "how?" 

Reflexive Pronoun. 
The Sanscrit reflexive pronoun swa is the Latin se, 



298 



sui, suus, and our self. It agrees with the Chinese §f 
tsi, zi, "self," "spontaneously," "from." The Chinese 
have another reflexive, g, ki, which seems to be 
connected with the demonstrative in g and k, viz., gi 
and kit. 

Verbs. Derivatives. 

The desiderative and intensive forms of verbs redu- 
plicate the first letter of the root. This is a principle 
we find in Mongol and Turkish. The Sanscrit suso- 
bhish is " to desire to shine," and sosuby, " to shine 
very brightly." In Mongol c'habc'hagan is " very 
white," habhara is " very black." The resemblance, 
though only partial, is worth attention. Complete 
similarity in all points is not required in order to prove 
consanguinity of language. Else why is the conju- 
gation of the Greek verb so different from the Sanscrit 
in many respects ? 

As the Sanscrit has a causal, a passive, a desiderative, 
and an intensive, among its derivatives, so the Mongol 
has a causal and a collective. When Sanscrit gram- 
mar was formed, the passive had not become^ a voice, 
but was, as in Mongol, simply a derivative. Here is 
evidence of consanguinity. 

Derivative syllables immediately follow the root, 
after them come the marks of mood or tense, and 
finally those of person. Consequently derivatives are 
the oldest, then come the mood and tense marks, and 



PERSONAL ENDINGS. 299 

the personal endings, the most recent in formation, 

stand last. 

i 

Personal Endings. 

The personal endings in Sanscrit verbs, as in the 
present twi, si, ti, may be compared with those belonging 
to certain Tartar languages which border on the Indo- 
European area, viz., the Turkish and the Buriat- 
Mongol. The more distant languages, such as Mongol 
Proper, Japanese, Tamil, have not personal endings. 
We conclude, therefore, that the marks for the persons 
sprang into existence after the Mongol and other older 
branches of the Turanian family had left their original 
seats in Western Asia, and before they were followed 
by the Turks. The Turks did not leave the vicinity 
of the Arian mother-stem till the principle of the 
relative pronoun had been introduced into their lan- 
guage from the Semitic, and they themselves had 
communicated the personal endings to the Arians, or 
received them from that race. The Turkish relative is 
the interrogative in k, and as such it agrees with the 
Hebrew *3, occasionally used as a relative, and with 
the Latin and English relative qui and who. 

In the Turkish personal endings, as they are at 
present (Davids' Grammar), we find the elements urn, 
first person ; sen, second person. In the third person 
of the present tense we find nothing. The syllables 
urn, un, 1, are the marks used in the preterite. 



300 china's place in philology. 

TURKISH PRESENT TENSE. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL 

1. deugurum, I strike. deuguruz, we strike. 

2. deugursen, thou strikest. deugwsiz, you strike. 

3. deugur, lie strikes. deugurler, they strike. 

The antiquity of the Turkish is shown in the absence 
of the initial s and inserted r found in the English 
equivalent strike, 

SANSCRIT PRESENT TENSE. 



SINGULAR. 


DUAL. 


PLURAL. 


1. karomi, I do 


kurvah 


kurmah. 


2. Jcaroshi 


kuruthah 


kurutha. 


3. karoti 


kurutah 


kurvanti. 



Where the original elements are not too much 
decayed, we see in these two examples the identity of 
the marks of person. In the first person singular and 
plural m is the distinguishing mark. It is dropped, 
however, in the Turkish plural, where the suffix it of 
biz, " we," alone remains. In the second person s 
stands in the Turkish singular and plural. It has 
changed to P in the Sanscrit plural, reminding us 
of the Mongol Pa, "ye." In the third person the 
Sanscrit prefers the demonstrative root t, while the 
Turkish adopts that in i or o, as in the preterite dengdi, 
"he struck," where the second d marks past time. 
The Turkish plural ler is probably formed from ol, 



TENSE MARKS. 301 

"he," equivalent to the Latin tile. An r is added 
and the initial o is dropped. 

The idea of marking past time by a prefixed a in 
Sanscrit and e in Greek, having no prototype in 
Turanian languages, may with probability be traced 
to Semitic influence. The creative power of Semitic 
grammar is centred on the beginning of the word and 
sentence, and in Turanian grammar on the end. The 
vowel in the Semitic past tense is a, as in bar a, "he 
created." The two Sanscrit preterites of bhu, " to 
become," are abhavam and babhuva. Kartum, " to do," 
has three preterites, all having the vowel «, viz., 
akaravam, chakara (ch for k), akdrsham. I suppose, 
therefore, that a has in it a past force, and it may 
be compared with the Chinese g, i, " already," which 
seems to be the root of Turanian and Indo-European 
preterites in u (Tamil), and ui (Latin), 1 since a some- 
times changes to ♦. 

1 Bopp regards the augment in a as a privativum, and views it as an 
expression of the denial of presence. This view has involved him in some 
difficulties, and brought him into collision with more than one philologist. 
For example, how shall we explain the Greek augment in e, which bears 
no likeness to the a of negation ? Bopp says the a in the Sanscrit aug- 
ment had already lost its negative force, and had become a sign of past 
time, before it passed into Greek as the augment in e. Buttmann supposes 
it to be a broken-down form of the consonantal augment, regarding 
irvitTov as a shortened form from rervirrov. This, however, does not look 
very probable, and, in respect to Bopp's opinion, it is surely better first to 
make wider researches in kindred families of language, in hope of dis- 
covering the true origin of the augment. To explain it as the a of 
negation should be only a dernier ressort. 



302 china's place in philology. 

The Sanscrit future in td is probably connected with 
the infinitive in turn, and the Latin supine in turn, tu. 
I suppose its origin to be in the preposition to, the 
mark of the English infinitive, and the Chinese chi, 
"to a place," in old Chinese ti. If this be true, it is 
also formed ultimately from the demonstrative root in 
t, if at least that be not rather regarded as itself 
previously a verb of motion towards. 

The Sanscrit future in sya is conveniently referred 
to the Chinese J|§ tsiang, siung, an auxiliary word 
used in giving a future tense to verbs. It means 
primarily, " starting from the side of," " side," hence 
" to lead a division." The Mongols have indeed a 
future in sogai, used for the first person singular and 
plural, which may be formed from the old Chinese 
sik, "give," first used as a precative and then as a 
future. The former etymology is the more probable 
in appearance. 

The future participles seem to have connexion with 
the Turanian conjugation. They are formed with the 
suffixes (1) tavya, (2) aniya, (3) ya. Thus, from bhicj, 
" to eat," is formed bhoktavya, " edible." JBhoJamja, 
bhojya, mean the same thing. We are strongly 
inclined here to identify the first of these forms with 
the Mongol suffix t ( o, t'ai, Pel, in heregt'ei, " necessary," 
idelt'ei, " to be eaten," dort'ai, " willing," Johist'ai, 
"ought to be." The Latin gerund dicendas, "to be 
said," also bears features of resemblance. In Manchu 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 303 

the similar form ends in rangga, e.g., ararangga, " that 
which is to be written," from arare, "to write." The form 
in ya seems to be connected with the future indicative of 
the Mongol verb, which is formed by the same syllable. 

The potential in ya may be compared with the 
Mongol future in ya. The Sanscrit potential has 
usually the idea of fitness (Williams' Sans. Gram., 
p. 199), and is sometimes a softened imperative. The 
Mongol future is also used imperatively, as in yabiya, 
" let us go." So the Latin potential in e or i, as in 
amem, " I may love," sis, " thou mayst be," may also 
be explained. 

The Sanscrit conditional in sya seems to be identical 
with the Mongol conditional suffix so, as in bolbeso, 
"if it be so." There can be little doubt that it is the 
Chinese sik, "to give." The Latin conditional con- 
junction si finds also here a convenient etymology, 
and is then seen to be parallel to our own word if, 
derived from give. I see no reason why we should not 
hope to be able at some time to go further back and 
identify the conditional in s ultimately with the demon- 
strative in s. Such simple ideas as giving, going, 
coming, carrying, have attached to them sounds which 
are like the common demonstratives. Thus, in addition 
to examples mentioned on a former page, ti is used for 
" to arrive at a place," " him," " to." Gip is " to 
give," and it is also "to arrive at a place." Bed, 
"this," "that," is also "to carry in the hand." Kit, 



304 china's place in philology. 

gid, "he," is perhaps the European verb gad, "to go," 
Eussian chod, Sanscrit gati, "going," gata, "gone." 
Si, " this," is in old Chinese " to move from one place 
to another," and in Mongol, under the form ac'hiraho, 
it means "to carry," and under that of ec'hihu "to go." 
It is also in the West the verb of existence sum, asmi, 
esse. Further, the demonstrative zhi, zhet, "this," may 
be compared with shed, "to let go," shoot, and such like 
verbs. 

Verb as Substantive. Infinitive. Participles. 

As the Sanscrit infinitive in turn is apparently formed 
of the demonstrative in t, and the accusative in m, so 
in Mongol the infinitive in hu resembles the accusative 
in gi, and in Turkish the infinitive in mek seems to be 
formed from the demonstrative in m. 

The participle in t, as in bodhat, " knowing," is like 
the Mongol gerund in ged, which in colloquial is pro- 
nounced ed, thus, medeged or meded, " knowing." The 
two roots, budh, med, are, there can be little doubt, the 
same word. 

The participle in amdna may be compared with the 
Mongol colloquial gerund in man. This form is not 
given in Schmidt's Grammar. Its use is parallel to 
that of the gerunds in ged an&Ju. 

The passive past participle in ta may be compared 
with the Mongol gerund inju, of which the equivalent 
old form is du. As the Sanscrit form is often used 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 305 

indicatively as a perfect, so is it with the Mongol. 
The substantive comes first, and then the indicative. 
The verb is fundamentally a substantive, and gerunds, 
participles, and infinitives, lie at the base and constitute 
the foundation of the Turanian verb, e.g., ochogder 
medeji, " I knew it yesterday," where the Chinese 
tsok, " yesterday," is seen in the first of the words, and 
ji, the colloquial form of the gerund ju, in the second. 

It may be objected that this Mongol gerund is 
active, and the Sanscrit form ta, now compared with it, 
passive. I would then suggest a comparison with the 
Mongol adjective in t'o, t'ai, as in heregt'ei, "necessary," 
moriPai, " possessed of a horse." Bopp states that the 
passive participial suffix ta forms in Sanscrit possessive 
adjectives out of substantives, as p'alitds, " gifted with 
fruit" (§ 835). So in English we say "horned cattle," 
forming a possessive adjective from "horn," just as 
the Mongols would say uburt'ei, " horned," from ebur 
or ubur, " horn." 

Auxiliary Yerbs. 

The substantive verb as, " to be," in English am, art, 
are, was, appears in Mongol without s. The root there- 
fore is a ; which means "being," and is also the 
ultimate root of aham, the first personal pronoun. 
The idea of being is derived from that of personality, 
and the oldest expression of personality is found in this 
pronoun a. 

20 



306 



The second Sanscrit auxiliary verb is kri, "do," 
karomi, " I do." In Mongol a very common verb is hi, 
"do," himoi, "I do," or "be does," hibe, "be did," etc. 

Tbe tbird Sanscrit auxiliary verb is bhu, " become," 
" be," bhavitum, " to become," bhava, " become," 
abhavam, " I was," or " I was becoming." This verb 
is in its Mongol form distinguished as neuter and 
causative. The root bu is neuter, "be." The insertion 
of I makes it equivalent to our word " do," taken 
intransitively as in bolomoi, "it will do." The past 
participle bologsen means " completed," and is used as 
an auxiliary to express the accomplishment of the 
action of any verb. 

"What proof can be more convincing than the 
existence of these auxiliary verbs of the essential 
identity in origin of the Sanscrit and Mongol languages ? 
But the same proof holds good also for the Turkish 
and Tungusic stocks. It is only when we come to the 
Japanese and Dravidian branches that this system of 
identical auxiliary verbs diminishes from three to one. 
The verb a for existence keeps its place everywhere. 
Hence it appears that the original Tartar language, 
which was split into Turk, Mongol, Manchu, Finnish, 
etc., immediately preceded the Sanscrit in the linguistic 
development of the world. 

Adverbial Suffixes. 
T in Sanscrit is d in Mongolian. Thus among 



ADVERBS. 307 

the adverbs of place, atra, "here," tatra, "there," 
correspond to the Mongol ende, "here," t'ende, 1 "there." 
The suffix in the two languages is identical. 

D in Sanscrit is equivalent to j or d in Mongol. 
Thus kadd, "when?" is the Mongol hejiye, "when?" 
Ekaddy "once," is in Mongol nigodaga or nigodd, 
"once," from nig, " one." Tadd, "then," is in Mongol 
t'eduile, " then." 

The suffix vat in suryavat, "like the sun," from 
mrya, " sun," may possibly be the Mongol adeli, 
"like." The initial v was originally not consonantal. 
The Latin is idem. 

Negative Adverbs. 

The negative na, ne, nehi, is derived from the same 
source as the Japanese negative. That source will have 
been some Turanian language in South-western Asia. 

The negative md is found in Chinese, in the Tartar 
languages, in Tibetan, and in the Semitic family. It 
is used over nearly the whole of Asia, but, except in 
Greek, is little employed in Europe. 

Time, Manner, Comparison, Place. 

Adya, "to-day," ei now," may be compared with the 
Mongol edoge, "now." Evam, eva, "so," "thus," are 
suggestive of identity with the Mongol yim, "thus," 
" so." Kwa, " where," is the Mongol hamiga. 

1 The Mongol e is the same in sound as the Sanscrit «. 



308 china's place in philology. 

Prepositions. 

The absence of prepositions to mark the relations of 
nouns is peculiar, among the Indo-European languages, 
to the Sanscrit branch. The Romans used "in," "ex," 
" ab," etc., as the English now use "from," "in," "to," 
etc. It is a specialty of the Sanscrit, and of the triple- 
branched Turanian system, to employ case suffixes 
instead of the more ancient prepositions found in the 
Chinese, the Semitic, and the Himalaic systems. The 
Greeks, loving freedom, early threw off the yoke of 
this Turanian law. The speakers of Sanskrit never 
did so. In Homer the adverbial case suffixes are used 
with the prepositions. In later Greek the adverbial 
case suffixes are not found. They have given place to 
prepositions, as afterwards the cases of nouns also 
became needless over much of the European area, and 
were exchanged for the primeval prepositions which 
seem to be ever engaged in recovering their long lost 
dominion. In Sanscrit the prepositions are only used 
in compounds as inseparable prefixes, and here the 
nearest Turanian type to which in this respect it can 
be compared is the Dra vidian. 

Compounds. 

When in Sanscrit words are compounded, con- 
nective letters are not used, and the resulting whole is 
treated as a single word. Thus, for " moonlight " 
chandraprabhd is used. In Mongol it would be saranu 



SANSCRIT COMPOUNDS. 309 

gerel, where nu is the genitive case. The Tartar 
languages have an aversion to naked compounds, and 
prefer to introduce, as here, the genitive suffix. This 
I believe to be a comparatively modern tendency. 
The Sanscrit acts here according to the true ancient 
principle for the compounding of words by simple 
juxtaposition, as found in Chinese. The Tartar lan- 
guages appear to have acquired the habit of inserting 
case suffixes, and other particles, between words which 
would otherwise coalesce into compounds, since they 
were separated from the Japane'se and Dravidian 
branches. Hence, in regard to the way of forming 
compounds, the Hindoo principle must be compared 
with that existing in older stems, e.g., in Chinese yue 
Hang, " moon light." In Japanese and the Dravidian 
languages the crude forms or roots are likewise placed 
side by side without connecting particles. Japanese 
tsuki akara, " moon light." In the Greek and Latin 
languages, as in lunce lumen, the genitive suffix is, as 
in Mongol, carefully inserted. Hence the Tartar race 
remained in juxtaposition with the forefathers of the 
Greeks and Latins later than the time when the 
speakers of the Sanscrit and Dravidian idioms were 
in a position to exercise an influence upon each other. 
The compound gurusishyau means " master and 
scholar." There is no conjunction. Au is the sign 
of the dual. Guru, " teacher," and sishya, " scholar," 
are co-ordinate nouns — roots standing together without 



310 china's place in philology. 

connective, as bakshi, "teacher," shabi, "scholar," 
might do in Mongol. But the Mongol is without the 
dual mark, unless hoyol, u the two," be added, as is 
sometimes done. 

The want of a conjunction is in accordance with the 
custom in all eastern Asiatic languages. 

In the compound maranavyadhisokah, marana is 
" death," vyddhi is " sickness," and sokdh is " sorrow." 
These three nouns are written together without a 
conjunction, forming one huge word, which in Sanscrit 
syntax is treated as a single substantive. It may be 
compared with the Chinese sheng lau ping si, "birth, 
old age, sickness, and death," in Mongol t'urehu, 
ot'olhu, obc'hinhii, uhuhn. The four Chinese substan- 
tives become in the Tartar idiom four infinitives. How 
thoroughly they are regarded as substantives appears 
from the fact, that in the Buddhistic language common 
in Mongolia they are known as the durben dalai, " four 
seas." 

The addition of the connecting conjunction in more 
western languages is proof of the influence of Semitic 
grammar. The aggregation of substantives without 
conjunctions is a circumstance in Sanscrit which shows 
how completely that language rests, in regard to its 
linguistic principles, on the speech of more eastern 
races. 

The resemblance may be noticed in all sorts of 
compounds. In this part of grammar Sanscrit looks 



SANSCRIT COMPOUNDS. 311 

like an old Mongol using but sparingly its apparatus 
of case particles. E.g., srarga yata, " gone to heaven," 
svargang gd, " the Ganges of heaven." In Mongol 
T*engri dor garaksan, Tengrin Gangga ma run, where 
dor and n are locative and possessive. In Chinese, 
ancient or modern, the position of the verb, as standing 
before its noun, weakens the resemblance to Sanscrit, 
and throws into more prominent relief the essential 
identity of Sanscrit and Turanian syntax. 

The Sanscrit manda gala, "going slowly," is in Chinese 
man tscu, and in Mongol odan yabahu. In the last two 
of these languages this compound may take a genitive 
suffix and another noun, for instance, man, after it. 
The Sanscrit form is an adjective, of which the syntax 
is the same as if it were simple. 

"When such compounds occur as rdjaydmin, "that 
which goes to the king" (e.g., revenue), raja guru, 
"king's instructor"; rdjakala, "king's family," from 
kala, " family," " caste," the Chinese kia or ho, 
"house," "family"; rdjayhna, "regicide," from g/inat, 
" killing " ; rdj((danda, " punishment by a king," from 
danda, " punishment ; " Chinese analogy seems to 
require that the relation should in all cases be regarded 
as possesxire. Even where the English rendering re- 
quires from or by, as if the relation were ablative or 
instrumental, it is better to hold to the simplicity 
of primeval grammar, and explain all such instances 
on the principle of possessive dependence. Thus, 



312 china's place in philology. 

" punishment by a king " is also rendered by " king's 
punishment/' without much forcing. 

By regarding the relation as possessive in all cases 
where in a compound the second noun depends upon 
the first, the analogy with Chinese grammar becomes 
perfect. Thus, wang ts'i, "king's son," wang tsung, 
" king's family," wang fa, " punishment by the 
king," wang hi, " land appropriated to the use of the 
king." 

The same law rules in all the languages from the 
Hindoo area eastward to the Japanese Islands, except 
in the eastern Himalaic and Malay region, where the 
Semitic inversion, which transposes the genitive, holds 
sway. The true reason why this inversion is impossible 
in Sanscrit is, that this language is in fact controlled 
by the same laws of position as the Turanian idioms. 

The modern Pekinese speaks of fu fu lia, for 
" husband and wife." Here fu, " husband," takes one 
intonation, and fu, "wife," another, while Ha is a 
contraction for Hang, "two," and corresponds to the 
dual suffix, which would by the Sanscrit grammarian 
be placed here. Could analogy be closer ? But com- 
pare the words themselves ; fa, " husband," is bharu, 
fuj^^w^ef^ is bhdryd, and in Greek ttoois is "husband." 
The proof of original connexion in language thus 
becomes still more clear. 

Examples may easily be collected from Mongol to 
show that the inserted particles are often omitted, and 



LAWS OF POSITION. 313 

that the analogy thus brought to view may also be 
extended to the use of dual and plural suffixes. Thus 
c'has c'hagan, means " white as snow." If written in 
full, met'u or adeli would be added after c'has, " snow." 
This is exactly the Chinese shtet bale, " white as snow," 
and thebSanscrit MmasUala, " ice-cold." So also echige 
ehe hoiyogola, " the father and mother both." 

The resemblance to Chinese and Turanian idiom is 
carried also into what are called the relative com- 
pounds. Thus in mahadhanah purushah, " a man who 
has great wealth," mahd is "great," dhanah is an 
adjectival form of dhanam, " wealth." Native Sanscrit 
authors explain this usage as equivalent to the employ- 
ment of the relative in the genitive case. 1 "With this 
may be compared in Chinese a sentence such as ta Mo 
wen ch'i sh'i, " a scholar who has great learning," con- 
sisting of ta, "great," Mo-wen, ("learning and heard") 
"learning," cM, the possessive particle, sM, "scholar." 
In Mandarin the possessive ti is also used after 
adjectives, as in hau ti, "good." Compare also the 
Mongol yehe gabiya t'ai Mimun, or yeheu gabiyan humun, 
" a man who has great merit." Gabiya, " merit," is 
here made into an adjective by the suffix t'ai, which 
thus corresponds to the Sanscrit adjective suffix h. 

Laws of Position. 

In the Sanscrit and the Turanian languages, the 
1 Williams' Sanscrit Grammar, p. 166. 



314 



laws of position are the same in several of the most 
important particulars. 

If we take the sentence, " And the children of Israel 
dwelt among the Canaanites," in Jud. iii. 5, we find 
the Hebrew order the same with the English. The San- 
scrit and Mongol both read, " Israel people Canaanites 
among dwelt." The Chinese would be " Israel people 
at Canaanite people midst lived/' or "Israel people 
lived Canaanite people among." Thus the translators 
of the scriptures at Calcutta (edition 1852) have 
adopted an order for the words exactly agreeing with 
the Mongol. 

Another example is, " Jabin king of Canaan, that 
reigned in Hazor " (Jud. iv. 2). As before, the Semitic 
order is as in English. The Sanscrit reads Hatsora- 
nivdsinah kindniyardjasya ydvinasya haste. Here nivd- 
sinah is an adjective, "residing in." Raja is "king." 
Sya is the possessive suffix. Haste is "hand" in the 
locative. Omitting the word "hand" and the possessive 
case preceding it, the Sanscrit reads, " Hazor residing 
Canaanite king's Jabin." The Mongol reads, " Hazor 
in ruling Canaanites' Jabin king," Hajor for ejelegsan 
Hanayan t'anu Jabin hagan. The translators have 
adopted in Calcutta the same order nearly as those 
who performed their work on the eastern shore of 
Lake Baikal in Siberia. The Mongol introduces the 
case suffix after Hazor, and gives the name Jabin 
before his title. These are the variations; otherwise 



LAWS OF POSITION. 315 

the laws of position are identical. T'anu is the genitive 
plural. 

Hence the Sanscrit language has peculiar laws. 
The Greek and English both have the Hebrew order. 
In this part of grammar the Sanscrit is cut off from 
its proper relationship, and bears no close resemblance 
to any western language. It is in agreement with the 
eastern idiom of the Asiatic continent, with that of 
China and Japan, Mongolia, and Dravidia. 

This general agreement in syntax between the 
Sanscrit and Turanian types is subject to numberless 
exceptions. To make this plain, I here give two 
sentences out of the Hitopadesa, taken from Williams' 
Grammar. Asti, "there is," gautamasya mimes tapo- 
vane, "in the sage Gautama's grove of penance," 
Mahatapa ndma munih, "a sage named Mahatapah." 
Tena, " by him," dkramasannidhdne, " in the neigh* 
bourhood of his hermitage," mushika kdvakah, " a 
young mouse," Jcdka mukhdd bhrashto, " fallen from the 
mouth of a crow," drishtah, " was seen." 

Turanian syntax would require the verb asti, " there 
is," to be at the end of the first sentence, and the 
descriptive clause, "crow's mouth from fallen," to 
precede the noun " mouse little one," to which it refers. 

These two things excepted, the laws of arrangement 
are Turanian, as in "Gautama sage's penance garden 
in," " a Mahatapah named sage," " hermitage neigh- 
bourhood in," " mouse's little one," " crow mouth from 



316 china's place in philology. 

fallen," and the position of the verb " was seen " at 
the end of the second sentence. The resemblance is 
still closer, inasmuch as drishtah is a participle used 
indicatively, which is a common phenomenon in 
Mongol grammar. 

Judged by syntax alone, Sanscrit and Mongol are 
sisters, just as Hebrew, Greek, and English, if tested 
in the same way, might, though the similarity is 
somewhat less close, also be called sisters. 

It was after the separation of the Chinese from the 
primitive stock, that the great Turanian inversion 
occurred, which placed the verb last, and thus 
originated the declension of nouns. The Turanians 
remained long enough in the west to bring with them 
in their wanderings the declension of substantives, the 
conjugation of verbs, and a syntax which places them 
in a midway position between China and the western 
world. And then the Sanscrit, the most easterly 
member of the Indo-European family, by its peculiar 
syntax, its principle of agglutination in compounds^ 
and its use of the participle, conveniently occupies the 
interval between Turania and Europe. 

A word upon the Zend. The absence of the Turanian 
order in Zend syntax is a sure indication of Semitic 
influence. Bopp gives the following sentence in Zend. 
Staumi, "I praise," maig'emcha, "the clouds," varemcha, 
" and rain," ya te kehr pern, " which thy body," 
vah'sayato, " make to grow," baresnus paiti gairinanm, 



/.IN!) SYNTAX. 317 

" on the heights of the mountains." Here gain, the 
Sanscrit giri, and Mongol agola, " mountain, " occurs 
last, after its nominative. This is Semitic order, which 
is also prominent in the whole sentence. The Zend, in 
fact, has an accidence and vocabulary like the Sanscrit, 
but a syntax like the Hebrew. As in the modern 
Persian, Semitic words had also pushed their way into 
the Zend. Thus athr, " fire," is the Hebrew esh by 
the common change which takes place between sh and t. 

A few Zend words with old Chinese and Mongol 
equivalents are here appended. 

" Bad," Zend eghe, Chinese ah. 

" Flesh," Zend machshe, Mongol maha, Persian maso. 

"Not," Zend ma, Mongol bis/ti, bu, Chinese mo. 

" Ear," Zend goshtc, Chinese ngi, Sanscrit ghosha, 
Persian gosh. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

European Languages. — Latest and Grandest Development of 
Language. — The Alphabet. — Common Radical Syllabary of 
Chinese and European Languages. — European Radical Syl- 
labary. — The European Word. — Semite Influence seen in 
conjugational vowel changes, in doubled consonants, in 
Masculine and Feminine Terminations, and in Dual and 
Plural Numbers. — Turanian Influence seen in Moods 
and Tenses, and ln Compounds. — European Syntax. — Chinese 
Element. — Semitic and Turanian Elements. — Greek. — Tones 
in Chinese are Accents in Greer. — Common "Words in Greek, 
and Mongol. — Latin. — Resemblance of Latin Gerund and 
Supine to those of Tartar Languages. — List of Roots Com- 
mon to Latin, Chinese, and Mongol. — Latin Syntax more 
Turanian than the Greek. — Roman Family Relationships 
Suggestive of Connexion with Eastern Ideas. — Resemblance 
between Roman and Old Chinese Religious Beliefs. — Russian: 
The Best New Type of the Sclavonic Family.— Full Alpha- 
bet. — Abounds in Prefixes to Roots.— Examples of Syntax. — 
Anglo-Saxon. — The Syntax Turanian. — Anglo-Saxon and 
German have more of the Turanian Element than is seen 
in the English. — English Returns to Chinese and Primeval 
Syntax. — Cause of these Variations. — Resemblance of 
Anglo-Saxon Poetry to that of the Mongols. — Alliteration: 
Exchanged for Rhyme; Cause of this Change. — English. — 
List of Common "Words, Chinese and English. 

Old as are the European languages, evidenced by 
an unbroken series of literary works, dating from about 
the ninth century before Christ, they bear in their 
structure the marks of youth, if compared with the 



INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 319 

Turanian and Semitic families. Principles of grammar 
seem to have been early borrowed from both these 
families, and incorporated in European speech at a 
time when language was still plastic. Destined them- 
selves to be the dominant powers in the world's history, 
from the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, they were 
before that epoch living as independent nations, occa- 
sionally subject to the Semitic rulers who from time to 
time were able to reduce some of the nearer among 
them under their sway. Semitic and Turanian in- 
quest at a very ancient date would impart Semitic and 
Turanian elements to the language of the conquered, 
and when these nations themselves invaded regions 
occupied previously by Semite and Turanian peoples, 
similar results would ensue. 

The Indo-European system, with the Chinese, 
Semitic, and. Turanian, would each branch directly out 
of the primeval trunk of language. Each would 
develope its special characteristics with a varying rate 
of rapidity. Civilization, the invention of writing, 
maturity in arts, and in political institutions, would 
soon harden the Chinese and the Semitic families into 
a distinctive moulded form. The Turanian and Indo- 
European would take a longer time to harden, and in 
them the language-forming power would continue for a 
longer period. They would remain in a plastic state 
till the polysyllable and the paradigms of substantive 
and verb forms were completed. 



320 



Rapidity of change in language is in proportion to 
the civilization of the people speaking it. In early 
times languages changed more quickly than now. 
Not many centuries would be required for the primeval 
development of the existing families. But once formed 
they would last for thousands of years. Yet there is a 
sense in which they may be said to stand in chrono- 
logical succession. 

As in geology it has been shown that the lesser 
ranges of mountains were first elevated and the highest 
last, so it has been in the history of language. Mono- 
syllabic speech preceded the dissyllable, as the dis- 
syllable preceded the polysyllable. The Alps, Andes, 
and Himalayas, were not thrown up till the lesser 
mountain systems were complete. They are more 
aspiring, they pierce the region of the clouds, they 
possess a greater variety of vegetation, present to the 
eye richer landscapes, originate larger rivers, and pro- 
mote the fertility of wider tracts of land than lesser 
mountain chains. So it has been with the Indo- 
European languages. They have aimed high in 
thought, enlarged the field of poetic feeling, advanced 
scientific inquiry, and led the human race forward on 
the path of civilized progress to an unequalled degree. 
The greatest thinkers in philosophy, the creative 
intellects of science, the most noteworthy conquerors 
and legislators, have been those whose speech was 
Indo-European. 



EtOPXAH LANGUAGES RKC1M. 32] 

As the cause of the greater elevation and raagnit 
of the more recent mountain chains may be probably 
referred to the increased thickness of the earth's crust, 
unci the consequent increased pressure on the liquid 
materials beneath, so the richness in forms and in 
capability for expressing human thought which marks 
the Indo-European languages, is due to the united 
action of the older linguistic families upon this last 
and noblest creation of the language-forming power. 

It is necessary, therefore, to review briefly the 
traces presented to view in European languages of the 
presence in a long distant time of strong Turanian 
and Semitic influence. The German, Russian, French, 
and English of the present day are descended from 
older forms of speech, which assumed their peculiar 
shape under this double formative influence. 

The Alphabet. 
A. 

The broad a in father belongs to all languages. It 
lias been replaced in modern Chinese by o. In western 
vocabularies it occupies less space in those which are 
modern than in those which arc ancient. Hence it 
abounds in Hebrew and Sanscrit. It has become u in 
some Chinese words, as in ff< } mu s " father," " mother," 
from the primeval ba, ma. It belongs to the pronouns, 
and represents the first person. As a suilix it is 
common in Greek and Sanscrit, as in the Greek names 



322 china's place in philology. 

of the Phoenician letters. Beth, caph, teth, etc., 
became beta, kappa, theta, etc. In the inevitable 
softening down of language the consonantal finals t, p, 
took after them in Greek the vowel a. A has become 
o in Hebrew, so that lo, "not," is written X7, with 
aleph. In Tamil, Japanese, "and Mongol, a is much 
prefixed to roots, as in Japanese ame, " rain," Tamil 
mazhei, Latin madeo, " moisten." 

The short a of Sanscrit is understood whenever no 
vowel mark is used. This is an indication of the 
extensive ancient use of this vowel. 

B. 

The consonant b was the old representative of 
the Chinese p and / in the lower or sonant series. It 
is interchanged with m, as in Persian and Mongol 
boron, "rain," Japanese ame, Hebrew mayim, "water," 
Hebrew matar, "it rained." Also Mongol bi, "I," 
Turanian min, Latin me, mihi. Also bal, "honey," 
Latin mel. It is sometimes used in Greek for w, as in 
fiovkofjiai,, " I wish," Latin volo, velle. 

In Sanscrit it also took an aspirate occasionally like 
d and g, as it probably did in old Chinese in the first 
sonant tone, which in Mandarin has become aspirated p. 

CH. 

The compound letter ch is the modern equivalent of 
t in the eastern Asiatic languages, and of k in the 



THE ALPHABET. 323 

Indo-European. In modern Chinese we also see ch 
originated from /, when standing before the letters u 
and i. All Chinese words in ch not thus formed 
recently from k, are derived from t or d, according as 
they belong to the surd or sonant series. 

The Sanscrit ch, aspirated and unaspirated, are both 
from k. The Tibetan ch, ch', is from s or sh. The 
Mongol ch aspirated is from t's, and this again from s 
or 6//, as c'hag, " time," Chinese zhi, c'hihgon, "stone," 
Chinese zhiag. The same thing occurs in Fuhkien, 
where shut, " water," is chui y also in Tibetan, as c'hu, 
"water," e'hi, "die," Chinese si. Perhaps a part of 
the Chinese words in sh formerly had c l h for sh. The 
guttural ch, as in loch, " a lake," in Europe, represents 
k in Chinese. Thus wcchse/n, " to change," may be 
seen to agree with the Chinese yik, " to change." 

The Turkish ch corresponds to the Mongol d. Thus 
kachj "how many," is in Mongol heden. The Chinese 
clt is also found to be j in Mongol, both having sprung 
out of an older d or t. The Japanese ch is in Mongol 
s, and is, strictly speaking, in. 

J). 

The letter d is in old Chinese the equivalent of the 
modern ch in the lower series, and of the modern 
Mongol j. Compare the Sanscrit kadd, "wlun:" 
Mongol hcjij/c. 

The lost final d of many Chinese roots ifl recovered 



324 china's place in philology. 

in Japanese, as kudari, " to descend/' in Chinese Ma, 
ge, Kara, sadzki, "to receive," %§> sheu, zhud. 

D is often interchangeable with /, as in lacryma, 
haupvov, '* tear," longus, " long," Chinese J| dung, 
" long." 

D sometimes becomes t in western languages, as 
Chinese da, " earth," Latin terra. 

Dj takes the place of g in the Shanghai dialect 
before the vowels i, u. The same occurs in English, 
as in " bridge," from " brig," and several other words 
where g is final. 

E. 

The vowel e in " then," " there," is derived in 
Chinese from ya, and is scarcely used except as a 
modern final. 

In Mongol e is classed with u and u as female, while 
a, o, are male. These terms mean that when the root 
has, for instance, e for its vowel, the vowel of the 
added s}dlables shall be of the same class. The 
Mongol e is now enunciated as the Sanscrit short a, 
but in Hindoo words whose sound is transferred, as in 
Ganges, a is used by the Mongols for the short a ; thus 
they write Gangga (not Gengge). 

The European e is usually the Chinese i, as in yit i 
"one," Sclavonic yedin, Chinese nyit, "hot," Scotch 
het, German heiss. 

The English e, as in be, see, me, we all pronounce in 



UN. AI.I'IIAI 

open syllables with the sound i. The modern Chinese 
media] 0, as in p'01, "to be fit for," "to match," is 
found in European languages to be 1, as in Jif. But in 

this case the old form in Chinese is usually p'tt. The 
Chinese j has changed to 0, while the English c has 
changed b 

The Sanscrit e is found late in the series of vowels, 
forming with a supplement to the three chief vowels, 
Oj /', u. Similarly, the Greeks adopting the three 
leading vowels of the Phoenician alphabet a, u, /, 
alcph, 000, yod, proceeded to apply an aspirate he to 
represent the vowel e, as they used a guttural sign 
(ii/in for the vowel 0. The Semites were content with 
three vowels. The Indo-Europeans needed five. The 
Greeks did with the Semitic alphabet in the west what 
the inventors of the Devanagari did in the east. They 
took the chief vowels as they found them, and used 
new signs for vowels not represented. That at both 
ends of the Semitic ana, which once probably reached 
from the Mediterranean to the Indus, the tin. 

fi/rjj/, car, and yod, should haw been regarded as 

vowels, may be appealed to in proof that they were 
not originally consonantal signs, as some grammarians 
maintain, but true vowels. 

F. 

F is a new letter in Chinese. It proceeds from \ />, 
and p*. It is wanting in B£ongol and Tamil, as it is 



326 china's place in philology. 

also in Sanscrit. In Greek it crept in as an aspirated 
p, gliding afterwards into (j>, pronounced like the Latin 
f. The Latin /came from jo, as did the English. The 
Semitic / probably also came from p. One sign £ is 
used for p and / in Hebrew, and the Greeks, adopting 
the Phoenician alphabet, used the same sign for the 
value p, which shows that at about the time B.C. 1000, 
this was its usual force. F is inserted in a few German 
words after a radical initial p, as in pflegen {pledge, 
pignns). In Japanese / is used for h when standing 
before u, and proceeds ultimately from p, b. 

G. 

The letter g is the old form of the modern k and k ( 
in the lower series. In Mongol the old Chinese g is 
found as g or h, e.g. hwun delehu, "to honour," from 
Chinese king. In Hebrew and in European alphabets, 
it precedes the corresponding surd letter k. In Latin 
g changed to dj before e, and this again became zh in 
French. 

The Mongol g sometimes corresponds to the Sanscrit 
k and the Greek %, as in gar, kara, x e fy> Du t also to the 
Sanscrit g and gh. 

The Persian g sometimes corresponds to the Chinese 
ni, as in gao, " cow," gosh, " meat," " flesh," " ear," as 
does the Greek in yvvq, " woman," if compared with 
^f nio. 

An initial g is often dropped, as in if from give, and 



THE ALPHABET. 327 

in the Piatt Deutsch, where gewesen, " been/' becomes 
yevesen. 

H. 

The Chinese h seems to be a modern letter formed 
from k, k', and g. For example, jgl hi, "joy," Latin 
gaudium* The final d is recovered from the phonetic, 
^ kit, "luck," forming the upper part of the character. 

The Japanese h represents p or b. The Mongol h 
represents k, k l , g. In Greek it stands for s. In 
Latin it corresponds to the Chinese k and g, as hie, 
" this," Chinese ^ gi. The same is true in German 
and English, as kok JfJ, "high," hoch, "high." 

In the old middle dialect of China, as still spoken in 
the Sucheu and Hangcheu region, h is subdivided into 
a strong and weak aspirate. In the Mandarin dialect 
of north and west China, it coincides with s when it 
precedes i and u. In Zend and Persian, h occurs for s 
in hapta, " seven," etc. 

The Semitic heth, the Scotch ch in loch, is not used 
in the eastern Asiatic languages. The Semitic heth 
and he both correspond to g, and probably derived 
their origin from that letter. 

/. 

/ is one of the three primitive vowels. In modern 
Chinese it sometimes becomes wei. This we learn from 
the Japanese, who call wei, " a seat," i. It is a prefix 
in Japanese and Tamil, as in iku, " how many," from 



328 china's place in philology. 

ki, "how many?" The changes of vowels are too 
rapid to allow any general correspondence to be traced 
between the Chinese i and the European equivalent, or 
vice versa. 

J. 

The Chinese modern j is from ni, the Mongol from d. 
The Chinese j is zh, the Mongol is dj. The Sanscrit j 
is dj, and is derived from g, as ch from k. The Latin 
j was y, and sometimes dj, and has changed into zh in 
French, and into dj in English. The Mongol ujihu, 
" to see," jirehe, " heart," are the Latin videre and 
the Persian dili. The Semitic y is pronounced j by 
Europeans, as in Jehovah. The Sanscrit yuj, "join," 
in Chinese yok, is in Latin jung, and in Greek feiry, 
where dz is the Greek equivalent of dj. The Greeks 
could not pronounce ch or sh. The Arabic /, pro- 
nounced dj, is altered from an older g, as in jahannam, 
from Gehenna, " hell," just as dj has replaced g in the 
English words gender, genitive, etc., derived through 
the French from the Latin. Thus it appears that dj is 
primitive in no alphabet, but, like /and ch, is of recent 
origin, and was perhaps quite unknown in the early 
languages of the world. 

K. 

In modern Chinese, k before i and u has changed to 
ch. In the European languages, k changes to ch before 



THE ALPHABET. 329 

all vowels, except o and u. In ancient Chinese, k 
changed to h, but was also itself changed from g. 
There are not wanting indications that the true 
primeval source of k was g. The original of the 
Hebrew % ki, "for," "that," and ItS, ko, "thus," is 
found in the Chinese j£ gi, "he." The Sanscrit k 
corresponds to the Mongol g } as kara, " hand," Mongol 
gar. The Japanese k also corresponds to the Mongol g, 
as in kado, " gate," Mongol egude, Chinese hu, gud. 
In Sanscrit, s occurs for k, as in sat a, " a hundred," 
as compared with centum. The Chinese change from k 
to A exists in Mongol, where the Sanscrit kat'ara y 
" hard," is found hat'o, Japanese kataku ; and in 
Europe, where collis became "hill," and collum, "neck," 
hah. These two words are in Chinese ngok, "hill," 
and kang, " neck," where the old finals both appear. 
In Russian, ch occurs commonly for k, as in chistiye, 
"pure," castus, the Chinese kit, "pure," "clean." In 
Tamil, the old k appears for the Chinese and Mongol 
h, as in karumei, "darkness," Mongol harangwei, Chinese 
hek. 

Kt appears as initial in the Greek ktclvco, "kill." 
Here the intermediate vowel has been dropped. The 
Hebrew is katal, " he killed," and the true root is kat, 
"to cut." 

The aspirated form of k appears in Sanscrit, Chinese, 
the Himalaic languages, in Corean, and in Mongol and 
Turkish. Pronounced as the k and h in the word 



330 china's place in philology. 

inkhorn, but brought closer together. In Eastern Asia 
the aspirated and unaspirated k are separate letters. 
In Europe, on the other hand, if k is aspirated, it is 
the consequence of local or individual habit, and 
embraces all the instances. In the province where 
card is called k'ard, cold will also be called k'old, and 
so on. 

Z. 

The Latin / is found in Chinese usually as ch, coming 
down from an older d, as in JP- ch'ang, "long," old 
sound dung, Latin longus. So the Hebrew /, as in 
lakach, "to take," Greek Xcuyxdva), seems to be found 
in the Chinese t, as in tek, "to get." Compare also 
#37, "clothe," "put on," with the Mongol debel, 
"clothes." The frequent change of d to / perhaps 
indicates that the true origin of the letter is d. 

It is sometimes changed to n, as in the Mongol 
nog on, " green," Chinese lok, and the Latin nemus, 
" grove," Chinese Urn, Hebrew lo, " not," non, na. 

L is frequently inserted after an initial k, t, p, g } 
d, b, as in flat, pledge, black, as compared with patina, 
pactum, and the Sanscrit bahula, " black," and the 
Chinese bed, "spread out," bang, "pledge," mek, "black." 

If I occurs after an initial s in European languages 
it is radical, and the s not so. Thus, sloe, "a wild 
plum," is in Chinese li, "plum," and slachten, slay 
are in Chinese lok, " kill." 1 

1 Slip, Latin labor, lapsus, German schleifen. 



THE ALPHABET. 331 

Sometimes a connecting vowel is introduced between 
the initial and the inserted /, as in kclKvtttg), " hide," 
"cover," Sanscrit hub, Chinese hap. For caput, "head," 
the Russians have glava and golova. 

The insertion of I is common in some of the Himalaic 
languages, in Semitic, and in Indo-European lan- 
guages. It is avoided in Chinese and the triple- 
branched Turanian system. Hence in comparing roots 
it must be omitted from the European word before the 
Chinese or Mongol equivalent can be found. 

L is a favourite suffix in Turanian words, and a 
common third letter in Semitic trilateral roots ; as 
in Mongol gol, "river," Chinese ga. Hebrew ?3J?, 
ngagal, " revolved," from a biliteral root gak, which 
appears in circulus, circle, kvkXos, etc. 

L is sometimes inserted between the final consonant 
and the preceding vowel, as in our word old, Mongol 
ot'olju, " old," Latin vetus. It then sometimes takes a 
vowel, as in the Russian zoloto, u gold," where z is g. 

In the Cochin- Chinese and Siamese languages / takes 
the place of h. So also in the Malayo-Polynesian. 1 

The Chinese / is usually r in the west, as rota, 
" wheel," Chinese lut, " a round thing." 

M. 

The letter m in Chinese corresponds to the m of 
western languages, as in mel, " honey," Chinese mit ; 

1 Thus, lima, "five," may agree with the Hebrew hhamesh. 



332 china's place in philology. 

miles, " soldier," Chinese mo, " military." The final m 
of some European roots is represented by ng in Chinese, 
as KapirTU), " bend," Chinese ^ kung, " bow," " to 
bow." The Hebrew final m seems to correspond in the 
same manner to the Chinese final ng, as ram, " high," 
Chinese lung. The Greek m sometimes corresponds 
to the Mongol b and the Chinese p, as fia/cdpio?, 
" blessed," Mongol boyint'o, " happy," Chinese pok, 
" happiness." 

The Chinese m occasionally agrees with the English 
b, as in black, Greek yiteXa?, Chinese mek, "ink," 
Mongol behe. 

Final m has in modern Chinese become n. 

m 

The letter n is frequently interchanged with t as in 
eh, I'&o?, " one," unus, Chinese yit, " one." Final n in 
Chinese corresponds to final n in the west. Fundo, to 
" found," may be compared with the Chinese ^ pen, 
" root," "foundation." Chinese hen, " wheel," English 
" round," Chinese tan, " that which is stretched out," 
Latin tendo, " stretch." 

Final n is often dropped in Tamil, as in kuzhal, 
" tube," Chinese kwan ; Tamil kuri, kol, " stick," 
Chinese kan ; Tamil tdl, " sheet of paper," Chinese tan. 

The Tamil n final sometimes represents the Chinese 
t final, as in tan, " stand," Chinese dat, Indo-European 
stan, stad. 



THE ALPHABET. 333 

"What we write ng is a separate letter related to k 
and g, as n is to t and d. It is initial in Chinese and 
Tibetan. 

The Chinese initial ng is apt to be omitted, as in wo, 
" I," formerly nga. The final is also often dropped, as 
in kwang, " light," Mongol gerel, Japanese akari, Latin 
gloria. So also neng, " able," Tibetan nupo, " one who 
is able." 

In Latin roots ng often replaces the final k, as in 
pingOy pinxi, pictum, pango, pepigi, etc. 

"What we write ni, is in Sanscrit and old Chinese 
regarded as a distinct letter belonging to the ch andy 
series. It has changed in modern Chinese to j. In 
Turkish and Mongol it is found as ¥ or g. For 
example, nin, "man," Turkish kHshi, Mongol humun, 
ni, " two," Turkish ik% niok, " flesh," Turkish gosh, ni, 
"ear," Turkish gosh, niok, "if," Turkish eger. The 
European avrjp, and homo, " man," seem to belong to 
this little knot of words. Compare also gleich, " like," 
"if," gracilis, "tender," yvvrj, "woman," yd\a, "milk," 
with the Chinese niok, "like," "if," niok, "weak," 
" tender," nia, " woman," niu, " milk." 

The Chinese n, ng, and ni, are on the whole usually 
found k, g, h, in Tartar and European languages. 
Compare ngic, " cow," Mongol uher, Latin vacca, 
German kuh. Nga, " I," ego, niuen, " origin," yivo<;, 
genus. Ngan, " eye," oculus. 

Some examples exist of n unaltered, as nehmen, 



334 china's place in philology. 

nimm, " take," Chinese nim, " carry," " burden," 
"responsibility," in modern Chinese jen. For the 
Hebrew ayin see o. 

0. 

The letter o, like the other vowels, is often prefixed 
to roots. Chinese Pi, "tooth," qSovs, oSovtos, dens. 
Compare in Malay orang, "man," with the Polynesian 
rang, " man," and the Chinese lang, " man." The 
Japanese say obui, "carry on the back," Chinese pet. 
In Turanian languages the prefixed vowel is the same 
as that of the root syllable. Mongol olos, " people," 
\ao?, leute. So in Chinese the colloquial word for 
" elder brother," is aha, where the prefixed vowel takes 
its quality from that of the root ka, the old word for 
"brother." This is a very old law of change, for it 
appears also in the Semitic ahh, "brother," ab, "father." 

In the triangle of the three primeval vowels a, i, u, 
the letter stands between a and u, and is liable to 
change into either of these vowels, or into the inter- 
mediate values 6, e, and the in " gone." The old 
Chinese has become u in the modern language. The 
modern Chinese has come out of a. 

The Mongol has in the eastern dialect the values o 
and the in " gone." The Chinese is usually the 
in " go." 

The old Chinese agrees with the European 0, as in 



THE ALPHABET. 335 

rota, rotation, Chinese Ion, " wheel," " revolve," lot, 
" anything round," now changed to lun, lu. 

The Greek letter o was taken from the Phoenician 
ayin, of which the old sound was ng and g. Thus 
T\ty, " he sang," " he answered," " he spoke," is 
by Gesenius identified with cano, " I sing," but may as 
probably be compared with the Chinese =j ngen, 
"words," "to speak." So DM "congregate," must have 
been anciently pronounced gamam. It is identified by 
the same grammarian with the root in yd/jbos, cum, 
cumulus, which is the same with the Chinese Jgj/ 
gam, " collected." Thus the Hebrew ayin was first g, 
then it became ng, and was afterwards dropped or 
changed for a vowel, usually o. 

P. 

P in Chinese rests upon b as its base. No widely 
extended roots with the initial p are without repre- 
sentatives in the old sonant series. Thus pang, " to 
tie," has bog among the sonants, with the same 
meaning. Compare the European pack and pango. 
In the Mongol syllabary b is the normal form of this 
labial. The aspirated and unaspirated p grew out of 
b in the Chinese, Tibetan, and Sanscrit syllabaries. 
In the Semitic languages p, v, and /, appeared on the 
base of b. The Greeks, however, assigned the values b 
and p to the second and seventeenth Hebrew letters. 
We must therefore suppose b to be older in Hebrew 



336 china's place in philology. 

than v, andp than/. All Latin, Teutonic, and Persian 
words in /, can in Chinese and Mongol only have 
equivalents in p. Thus fugio, fliehen, cpevyco, are in 
Chinese bik, in Mandarin pi. The Japanese equivalent 
for the European and Chinese p is h. The Egyptian 
has p for the Hebrew /in apta, "bird," Hebrew £)ij}. 

Q. 

The letter q is ku or kw, and its existence is a proof 
that the Phoenician alphabet was once syllabic, and 
perhaps it may be concluded that Cadmus made use of 
that alphabet partly at least as syllabic. 1 The Chinese 
kwa comes from an older ku, kwo from kok, and so on. 
Hence kw is modern, and of no use in tracing etymo- 
logies on the Chinese side. 

R. 

This letter has appeared recently in Chinese. It 
shares with j the possession of the inheritance of words 
once belonging to the lost initial ni> as j^ ni 3 "son," 
now called ur, or er, or rh, as it is differently written, 
Turkish ugli, Mongol hubegun. In Japanese r repre- 
sents the Chinese I. In Mongol and Tibetan as an 
initial it seems to indicate a Semitic origin ; for the 

1 Professor Key, in English Cyclopaedia, Art. Q. Yet this hypothesis 
fails to explain why the Hebrew Jcuph is used as a final, as in pHJD f 
" was sweet." It may be remarked here that Jcuph in this example is a 
suffix, the root being mat, "honey," "sweet," the Chinese mit } and 
Greek /xe0u. 



THE ALPHABET. 337 

words in which it is found, e.g., Tibetan rab, " high," 
Mongol airiben, " many," Mongol oregen, " broad," 
Mongol orosiyahu, "to be pitiful," as compared with 
y) f rab, "high," "great," "many"; im, rahab, 
"broad"; mH, ratsa, "treat kindly." 

R is inserted commonly in roots after the initial in 
the Himalaic, Semitic, and Indo-European languages, 
and before the final in the latter of these families, as in 
crow, Latin corvus, Sanscrit hdka, umbrella from umbella, 
sprache from speech, world from welt. Before com- 
paring roots, this inserted r must be everywhere first 
eliminated. The comparison can then be conveniently 
made. Thus sprache, speech. Omit the prefix s and 
the inserted r. Change the guttural ch into the k or g 
from which it sprang. The root is then pak, which in 
old Chinese means "to speak," and is so used in the 
modern Shanghai dialect. 

R is also a common suffix in Himalaic, Turanian, 
Semitic, and Indo-European languages, as in Tibetan 
charpa, " rain," from c l hu, " water," Hebrew kaphar, 
" to cover," Chinese hap. 

R and I are in many respects much alike. The 
European prefix r is in Chinese /. Thus, ros, regen, 
rain, are in Chinese lu, " dew," in old times lok. 

As / came from d, so also did r derive its origin from 
that letter. The Hebrew T\^, "weave," is texo in 
Latin and tek in old Chinese. I suppose both these 
words to have had formerly an initial d. Thus, $V\, 

22 



338 china's place in philology. 

rosh, "head," is Chinese dud, in modern times t'eti. 
The Semitic sh is commonly convertible with t, and 
was perhaps derived from it. The change, however, 
might be the other way. The Aramean, which used 
tarn for " there," is usually supposed to be newer than 
the Hebrew, which used sham. To judge from Chinese 
analogy, the most widely spread at the present time 
should be regarded as the newest of the Semitic lan- 
guages. Further, as Abraham came from the land 
of the Chaldees, the language-forms preserved in the 
Nineveh and Babylon inscriptions should be regarded as 
older than the Hebrew. If so, t might be the older form. 
R is also introduced as a second letter in Semitic 
roots. Thus, barueh, "the blessed," where the root 
bak agrees with the Chinese p>ok, "happiness." 

S. 

The letter s is freely introduced as a prefix before 
the radical initials k, t, p, I, m, n. Thus, small is the 
same word as minus, [iifepos, and the Chinese mi, "little." 

It sometimes comes in place of e, as squire from 
equerry, the Latin equites. 

In Sanscrit and Zend s stands for k, as in the old 
name Massagetae, where Massa is Mahd, or magnus, 
" the great Getae." In Latin s final stands for t, as 
in patior, passus. In Russian s final stands for k, as 
in sosat, " to suck." In Grerman it represents t, as in 
beissen, " to bite." 



THE ALPHABET. 339 

In Hebrew both samech and sin (having each the 
value s) interchange with t. Thus, DD£, pasas, 
" diffuse," is in Arabic basat. The older form is t. 

The Chinese s corresponds to that of Europe in 
words such as su, in kau su, " to tell," old form sok, 
as compared with sagen, say. So also Chinese sat, 
"scatter," "sow," Latin sero, satus. This root is in 
Persian zed, as in ghemzeda, " heaviness-dispelling." 
So also Chinese sok, English seek. 

Sometimes the European s is recognized in the 
Chinese ts or t's. Thus sot, " a drunkard," is tsui or 
tsot, " intoxicated." 

The Chinese s becomes t in Cochin- Chinese, and 
generally in the Eastern Himalaic and Malay system. 

SH. 

This sound was not employed by the Greeks and 
Romans, and they did not, therefore, need an alpha- 
betic sign to represent it. In the Turanian languages 
it is also very sparingly used. As it is fully developed 
in the Chinese, Semitic, and Himalaic families, the 
cause of its non-appearance in Greek and Latin may 
be probably traced to Turanian influence. 

It has struggled back into existence in the French, 
where it appears as the representative of the Latin k, 
as in color, French chaleur. 

The Chinese sh is sh in Teutonic, Sanscrit, and 
Sclavonic languages, and s in Greek, Latin, and 



340 china's place in philology. 

Mongol. Thus, schiessen, "to shoot," is the old Chinese 
shet, " an arrow." ^, ^, and !§•, in Mandarin, 
ski, she, she, and meaning " arrow," " shed," " let go." 
How many summers and winters have passed since the 
ancestors of the Teutons and of the Chinese parted 
from each other, each with their vocabulary of common 
words, such as to shed, to shoot, a shed, etc. ? It is mar- 
vellous that, after so many ages, Time's defacing fingers 
have not yet destroyed the traces of original identity. 

The German sch is often softened down from sk, as 
in schreiben, the equivalent of scribo and fypdcjxo. So 
the English sh comes often from an older k, as in 
" wash," Chinese ok, Mongol ogahu, " to wash," and 
perhaps the Greek vypos, vypalvco, "moist," "wet," "to 
wet," unless that comes from sole, our " soak." 

The Chinese sh is sometimes represented by the 
European k, as in eado, " to fall," in Chinese shwai, in 
the old form shat, and probably the same as the word 
" to let go," she, given above. For all verb-roots are 
capable of assuming the causative, transitive, intransi- 
tive, passive, and reflexive modes. 

In Semitic languages and in Chinese dialects, sh 
is apt to change to s and to t. The affinity of sh 
for k appears first in Sanscrit and then in Europe 
generally. At present, however, in the Mandarin 
change now gradually taking place of ki and kii, 
to chi and chu, as also in that of hi and hit, to shi 
and shu, we see the budding of a similar principle. 



ill l : ALFHAE 

We also sec sh pushing its conquests in the Turanian 
area, as in Manchu, whore it represents the M< 
aspirated ch. This cJi aspirated is iii the Mongol area 
the eastern representative of the northern and western 
ts. For the Buriats, Kalkas, and Kalmucks, all prefer 
fs, which appears to he the older and typical form. 
The eastern c'h may therefore he regarded as a 
of a tendency to introduce sh, appearing at the east 
end of Mongolia. Sh proper also occurs in [Mongol 
words commencing with si, which are softened into 
shi, as shidorogo, 1 "honest." Such is the law in 
Japanese also. The letter sh is thus seen in these 
three languages asserting its lost existence, and 
winning back its ancient dominion, as in France, 
Spain, and other portions of the Latin area it has 
also been seen to do. 

T. 

The letter t comes in very many cases from d. 
Thus the Japanese kita, "north," is in [Mongol hofai, 
"behind," "north," hy'em, "behind," "after." Here 
j is d, and the old Chinese word would he gud, in the 
modern clipped form heu. So trctvu, "to tread," ifl in 
Chinese dat. The modern ti, "brother," tau, "reason," 
are from older words do, do. The letter t occurs 
for the Chinese sh and s in the eastern llimalaie 
languages. 

1 The Chinese shih, tl real," old form zhit. 



342 china's place in philology. 

This letter early became t', a form which probably 
appeared in the transition from d. The Sanscrit, 
Tibetan, and Chinese, have it in addition to t and d. 
In Turkish, Mongol, and Manchu, it is the normal 
form of t; that is, every t is aspirated, and sounds 
like the union of h with t in " anthill." 

The Semitic form of this letter was th, as in our 
" thin," " thick," and the Greek in r/%u, " I 
place," which occurs for the Mongol d, as in OaXdcraT], 
dalai, "the sea." 

T often precedes s in Japanese and Chinese, and in 
such cases is often aspirated. This compound letter, 
when not aspirated, is the German z in zeit, " time," 
and when aspirated it is the Mongol t's softened by the 
eastern tribes into &h. 

The German z or ts is derived from t, as is the 
Hebrew. For example, *)*]'¥, tsor, Tyre, was by the 
Greeks, Latins, and Arameans, known as Tvpos, Tyre. 
Probably in this case t was the original sound, but 
this is not certain. 

U. 

The letter u, like the other vowels, is prefixed in 
Mongol to roots. In modern Mongol it takes the 
place of e, as in umun, " before," in old Mongol emun. 
It corresponds to the Greek ei, as njihu, " to see," elhov, 
ecSo/jiai. Here / stands for d, and hu is the sign of the 
infinitive. 



THE ALPHABET. 343 

In Japanese and Tamil u is prefixed to roots, as in 
uma, u horse.' ' 

The modern Chinese u (wu) has lost m from before 
it in many instances, as in mo, " not," now wu. It has 
also taken a prefix before it very frequently ; for 
example, e in du, " sorrowful," modern sound ch'eu, 
Latin dolor, doleo. 

The old equivalent of the modern Chinese u was o. 
The modern diphthongs au, eu, iau, ieu, were formerly 
o, u, o, u. 

A modern form of u is u\ This vowel appears in no 
ancient alphabet, so far as can be known. Its place in 
the triangle of which the angles are the three primitive 
vowels, is between u and i. As it has replaced u in 
some Chinese and Mongol words, so has it done in 
many French words of Latin derivation. 

r. 

The letter v has taken the place of u in many Latin 
words, as vereor, " to fear," Chinese wei, Mongol aimoi. 
The Romans, however, pronounced it w. The Germans 
have also changed initial w to v, retaining the written 
symbol unaltered. The English are right to keep w 
in " was," " were," " will," for the equivalent words 
in Chinese and Mongol have no trace of v. The 
Germans write werden, ivollen, was, correctly, but they 
are wrong in the sound they give to the initial w. 

The Greek digamma was v or w, as in FeiKoac, viginti, 



344 



"twenty." Here the d of the full form duikosi was 
dropped, and u became F, and was afterwards lost. 

That the Sanscrit v was a vowel seems to be 
deducible from facts such as that the suffix of the 
dative case was ye or ve. 

The old Chinese v was the sonant form of /, 
and as such came from b. In modern Chinese it 
has become /. Its equivalent in western alphabets 
is b or p. 

In Hebrew, beth took v as one of its values. This 
was followed by the Greeks, who used their beta for 
words written by the Romans with v. So at present 
the Russians for the sound v write the sign b, herein 
imitating the Greeks. The Hebrew vav was formerly w. 

The Tamil v, like that of Sanscrit, represents the 
w of old Chinese, and the ui of Mongolian. 

The German v is an/, as in Vogel, "bird," Vater, 
"father." The English v is a German b, as in eben, even. 

Thus it appears that in Hebrew, old Chinese, 
English, and German, v rests on b and/. In Latin, 
Sanscrit, Tamil, and Russian, it is a mispronunciation 
of the primitive w. 

W. 
The letter w belongs as an initial to the old and new 
Chinese. In the old Hebrew alphabet it was vav, after- 
wards pronounced v. In Greek the Chinese w appears 
as a vowel. The root wan, " to bend," appears in the 



THE ALPHABET. 345 

Latin vinam and Greek olvos, " wine," from vinea, " a 
vine," " that which bends." The English and Greek 
keep the primeval w. In Latin as now pronounced, 
and in French, it is changed to v. 

The European w, as preserved in the Saxon part of 
the English language, and in the ancient Latin, is 
represented in Chinese and Mongol by a vowel initial, 
which may be a, o, i, or one of the corresponding 
consonantal values, w, y. Thus vulgus, "the people," 
is in Mongol olos ; vacca, " cow," is uher ; video, " see," 
is ujimoi, etc. So also wail is in Mongol weilehu ; 
" was," " were," are in Mongol alio, " to be," weiledhu, 
" to do," (the substantive verb here assuming an active 
character,) and in Chinese wei, "to do," or "to be." 
The German wechseln, " to change," is in Chinese yik. 
Here the y is a modern prefix. A form still more 
modern is /, as in Mandarin. The Latins had vicis, 
"change," viz, vicissim, etc. In the Greek a/a? of 
irevTaias, " five times," we have the same root meaning 
" times," and it may be the origin of the Latin es in 
vicies, "twenty times," and the English ce in once, 
twice. 

The letter w is inserted after the initial of a root. 
This seems to occur through a tendency in the vowel 
u to become a consonant. Thus Jcu, "a melon," in 
Europe " cucumber," " gourd," etc., is in modern 
Chinese kwa. The vowel a is an addition, and u 
appears as w. So in our word sweat, w represents 



346 



the vowel u of sudor and sudo, and ea is inserted. The 
same thing takes place when the first letter is u, as in 
uge, the Mongol for " word." This corresponds to voco 
and vox in Latin. The vowel u becomes a consonant v, 
and o is inserted. So in the Chinese yue, " say," in 
the old form wat, the English equivalent is word, where 
r is inserted. The Latin is aio, " I say," the Greek 
avBrj, "voice." The Hebrew yadah, "praise," may be 
the same word. The original primeval root was pro- 
bably ad or ud. From this the Chinese formed Q and 
gljj yue and wei, both anciently called, we may suppose, 
ud, and afterwards yet and wat. In the mediasval 
dictionaries they are read yet, wei. 

A similar change took place in Semitic words. Thus 
the city Erech, in the old Hebrew Ark (where the 
initial vowel was perhaps intended to be repeated in 
the second syllable, so that it would read Arak), is now 
Waraka. The Arabs have prefixed w. The Latin 
form was Areca. It means "the long" city. The 
pointing of the grammarians, directing it to be 
read Erech, cannot represent a very ancient pronun- 
ciation. 

X 

The letter x and the ksh of Sanscrit represent com- 
binations of k and a sibilant. They are unknown in 
the languages of Eastern Asia. The Greek f took the 
place of the Hebrew Samech between n and o. Hence 



1 III. AI.I'II \l 3 17 

ire Learn that the base was looked on as .-?, and k ai an 
uldition. But its real value was nearer to /.• than to 

I. This is shown by such words as fwo?, " common," 
prhieh Lb the same as koiv6$. If, then, Palamedes and 
!iis associates, who are said in the time of the Trojan 
War to have added 6, f , (/>, ^, to the alphabet, proceeded 
'o give this letter its position on the supposition that it 
is modified from s, they were mistaken. It is, in fact, 
formed by inserting B after /,-. Thus, typos, " dry," 
s convertible with o-^epo^, a/cripos, and ^epcro?, all 
meaning "dry." In a similar way y\r, j>si, is formed 
■rom p by inserting g, and in ITcbrew U from / in the 
jame manner. Thus, ^u%v, " the breath," " soul," is 
:he Chinese p'ak, "the corporeal soul," which is distinct 
Tom the hwutl or gun, " the immaterial soul." This 
asl word by interchange of final n with final/) : 
jut, and maybe identified with hwei or /•« /, "ghost," 
1 geist." So also yfrvxpos, "cold," is the Latin 
< rigidus f r being inserted in place of 8 in the more 
rn form. 
The Chinese and Tibetan are like the Semitic family 

n not taking t after h or />, hut only after /. 

Y. 

The letter y is j viewed Bfl a consonant. Vowel 
nitials liave a tendency to assume a consonantal form. 
>f the three prime TOWels, I takes//, '< tal \d >i 

akefl either //, as in the Tibetan yab, "father," from the 



348 



Semitic ab, or w, as in the Chinese wan, " bend," 
" circle," when compared with annus, " a year," 
or ng, as in Mandarin ngan, "rest," from an, the old 
form. 

The Chinese y is/ in Latin, as yik, "to throw," jacio, 
English jerk. In Greek it agrees with the unaspirated 
i, as I'&o?, " alone," Chinese yit, " one." Here, too, we 
see the probable origin of idem, "the same," "identical."' 
It is the Mongol adeli, "same," and the Chinese yit, 
" one." 

The vowel o also is apt to take y before it. The 
Mongol ogahu, " wash," is in Chinese yok. 

The Chinese y. and Latin j are in Sanscrit y and in 
• Greek f. This makes some confusion, for one of the 
most common values of j is d + zh, and it is formed 
from an older d with zh inserted, as Jupiter from Dili. 
In £Sei;?, a dialectic form of Zevs, the sibilant is 
placed before the initial d, instead of after. Hence 
j in Latin and z in Greek sometimes come from d, and 
at other times from y. In German j has the value y. 
In English y is used as in yoke, German jock, except in 
words of Latin derivation, as juvenile, which in Chinese 
is yen, old form yu or u. 

Z. 

The letter z may be connected with s, d, y, t, or k. 
Old Chinese words in z (that is, in the sonant series 
of s) have now become s. 



THE ALPHABET. 349 

In the Hebrew vocabulary words with samech, tsade, 
and shin sometimes take zayin. Thus, ziir, sur, are 
both used for "to return." 

In Hebrew the occasional origin of z from d, like 
that of s, ts, sh, from d and t, may be shown by 
examples. Thus, KD, baza, " cut in two," is by 
Gesenius compared with the Sanscrit bhidh, "to cut." 
Compare also the Greek pi£a, " root," with radix. 

In Tibetan zang, "copper," zab, "deep," zar, "fork," 
seem to be allied with the Chinese dung, "copper," 
the European deep, and the Chinese Pa, "fork." 

The connexion of z with y has been already noticed 
in speaking of the Greek zeta under y. 

In German t has become z, and is then pronounced ts. 

In Russian final k in a root often becomes z, as in 
lizat, " to lick," German leeken. 

The letter zh is otherwise written j, as in the French 
jamais, jour. 

In Chinese it has grown from an older ni. 

It must be looked for in European vocabularies as n, 
h, h, etc., as stated under /. 

Common Radical Syllabary. 

The common roots of the Chinese and European 
languages consist of monosyllables. That all roots are 
monosyllabic was known by philologists as the result 
of the comparison made, in the first half of the present 
century, of European languages with those of Western 



350 china's place in philology. 

Asia and India. But when the roots of European 
speech are compared with those of China, they assume 
a definite shape, at the knowledge of which philologists, 
while they hesitated to cross in their researches the 
Imaus and the Himalayas, could scarcely arrive. 

Roots may be first arranged in two groups, those 
which end in vowels and those which end in con- 
sonants. Among examples of the first are words such 
as a, used as " I," and as a verb " to be," ba, " father," 
ma, "mother." Of the second are bad, "divide," 
" other," kab, "cover," " head," nig, "hide," "black," 
dak, " cover," bang, " strike," " noise of slamming," 
kan, " tube," " straight stick," om, " dark," " shade." 

All the vowels interchange, but the chief lines of 
distinction are between a, i, u. Thus we have among 
the open syllables a triple division made by these 
primary vowels. 

The closed syllables in ultimate roots are chiefly 
formed by the six consonants g, d, b, ng, n, m. 

The initials are the three vowels, the six consonants 
just mentioned, with /, z, and zh. 

The syllabary, with these elements, would consist of, 
(1) three vowels; (2) eighteen biliteral syllables with 
consonant finals ; (3) twenty- seven biliteral combin- 
ations with vowel finals ; (4) 162 trilateral combinations 
with consonant initials, vowel medials, and consonant 
finals. In all there would, with these elements, be 210 
combinations. 



COMMON RADICAL SYLLABARY. 351 

This is the smallest number of syllables that we 
can allow for the common syllabary, unless we also 
eliminate /, by deducing it from d. 

If we add to the initials k, t, p, s, z, w, y, there will 
be twenty-one more biliteral combinations, and 126 
more triliteral. In all 357. These are perhaps the 
most probable and convenient limits for the common 
syllabary. 

It would be unwise to extend the finals by adding 
k, t, y, for although in European roots the difference 
between k, t, p, and g, d, b, is recognized, it is not so 
in any Chinese dialect. The Shanghai people pro- 
nounce g final before a sonant and k before a surd. 
The difference depends on position, but the fact indi- 
cates the possibility of g, d, b, having once occupied an 
important place in the Chinese syllabary which was 
afterwards lost to k, t, p, as these have in their turn 
resigned their position at the ends of words in favour 
of the vowels. 

Examples will be here given tending to show that it 
cannot be learned from the European roots whether 
k, t, p, and g, d, b, all belonged to the primeval 
syllabary or not. 

The English reed, German rohr, is in Chinese lu and 
lut. The Latin rota, rotundas, and the Greek pvOpos, 
aptO/jios, with the English round and Latin arundo, 
" reed," all come from the same root. The finals 
t, d, nd, are found interchanging in European Ian- 



352 china's place in philology. 

guages, while in Chinese, where lun is "wheel," and 
lut "anything round," n and t interchange. A fair 
inference is, that we cannot tell whether t or d was the 
original final, but that n and that final were inter- 
changeable before the Chinese language separated from 
the Indo-European. 

So with the Chinese yok, "to desire," when com- 
pared with the Latin acer, French aigre, and English 
eager, we cannot tell if k or g is the older. 

The arts of life had sufficiently advanced, when the 
Chinese separated from the Indo-Europeans, for the 
names of boats, of agricultural processes, of weaving, 
of houses, of the physician and the necromancer, to be 
the same. 

Take teoco, " to weave," Chinese tak, meaning " to 
weave cloth," or " to weave a hedge " of willow 
branches or bamboos. The corresponding European 
words do not appear ever to have d or g in them. 
Hence it may be. inferred that in this case t was the 
form of the initial previous to the separation of the 
races. The Russian is tikat or that, " to weave." The 
Greek has rev^o?, " a wall." 

At that distant time wooden cups were in use, which 
were called pat, jjffi the Sanscrit pdtra, the Latin 
patera. "A boat" was bat, and "an oar" was lut, 
iper/jbov. " A house " was ok, oIko<$. " To heal," and 
" a physician " were both it, larpos, Idofuu. " A 
magician " was ma, the Mongol bo, Persian magus, 



EUROPEAN RADICAL SYLLABARY. 353 

and Dravidian bagai. "A dog" was h'on, "a cow," gu. 
" A coverlid " and " to cover " were bed, the Latin 
pallium, and English bed. "To clothe" and "clothing" 
were wit, the Latin vestio, vestis. If boat and paddle 
(Latin batillus), and bowl and patera, are connected, it 
seems hopeless to expect that the original form of the 
initial, whether b or p, can now be ascertained with 
certainty. 

European Radical Syllabary. 

The European families while still one with the 
Hindoo prefixed s and sh to the initial consonant of 
many roots, and also inserted r or I after the initial in 
many more. To the six final consonants of the roots, 
which were originally h, t, p, ng, n, m, were added s, sh, 
r, I. Further, r and I were often inserted before the 
final consonant of the root. 

These processes were common to the Semitic and 
Indo-European systems. In the Semitic system the 
result was a vast formation of dissyllabic roots con- 
sisting of three letters each. Sibilant prefixes, the 
insertion of r and I, the duplication of certain letters, 
and the addition of r, I, s, sh, p, m, k, h, and perhaps 
others at the end, made that formation what it is. 
There is no trace of sibilant prefixes in the Turanian 
languages, nor of the insertion of r and I after the 
initial consonants of roots. In Eastern Asia sibilant 
prefixes occur only in Tibetan and Burmese, and the 

23 



354 CHINA'S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 

insertion of r and I only in these languages and in the 
eastern Himalaic family. We may, therefore, refer 
the sibilant prefixes and the insertion of r and I to 
Semitic influence. At least, these phenomena first 
make their appearance in that family, and the example 
was followed in the Indo-European and Himalaic 
systems. Examples : Hebrew shakab, 1 " he reclined," 
kvtttq), cubo, cumbo, English scoop. Hebrew sagab, 
" was high," gabab, " was high," shafat, " he judged," 
from pat or bad, " divide." 

Turanian influence on the European root appears in 
the finals, where r, I, s, are found as in Semitic. 
Examples : Mongol agola, Manchu aim (where the g of 
the root is dropped, as in colloquial Mongol), Sanscrit 
girt, Greek 6po<t, German Hugely English hill. The 
Greek has dropped the initial g. For the Turanian 
I we find the English and German / corresponding. 
The Semitic is kar, which has been followed by the 
Sanscrit and Greek. The Latin collis joins the Teutonic 
group. The Sclavonic gora is in agreement with the 
Semitic and Greek. The German medial g, which 
might seem to be an intruder, is found in the Chinese 
root gok, " mountain." It has been lost in all the 
other languages. Hence the European root is gor or 
gol, while the ultimate root is gok, with the sense 
"high," as in the words high and hoch. 

1 For the prefix of the sibilant in Ilebrew to biliteral roots, see 
Gesenius, Lex. Man., 954, under the letter E5\ 



HIE EUROPEAN WORD. 

Greek eupvs, " broad," Sanscrit urtf, Mongol on gun, 
" wide." Bar ma to be the root. 

Greek (ifjpi]i>, apcTTjv, " male," Mongol ere, 

Greek ttuXls, German burgh, berg, Mongol balgasun 
and huliij. Here the root is balg or balig, and the 
insertion of I is of Turanian origin. Khanbalik, the 
Turkish name of Peking in the time of Polo, mi 
" the city of the Khan." 

The European root shows a special and independent 
activity in its great extension of the sibilant pxefizet 
and of inflexions, and in the great variety of its initials 
and finals. 

The European Word. 

In assuming the polysyllabic form, the Eoropi 
word followed the Turanian analogy rather than the 
. i tic. This is signally manifest in the formation of 
derivatives, of case auffizeB, of the polysyllabic tenses and 
moods of verbs, and of the greater portion of the parti 

Yet the Semite influence ia very apparent in the 
introduction of strong preterites, doubled consonants, 
and all tense forms where the change of the vowel is a 
characteristic. The English preterite in 00, M, S, 
or o, etc., from a present in a, i, ete., may be accounted 
lor most satisfactorily in this way. This principle of 
change in the vowel — as in teethe, eodden, ttand, stood, 
sau/oi, geeandt — occurs Less prominently in Greek ami 
Latin, where Xeiira) lu ad ajmnjo 



356 china's place in philology. 

spergo in disjiergo and other compounds. In the first 
of these examples the change fixes the tense, in the 
other it depends on laws of accent and quantity. In 
the Hebrew such changes distinguish tenses and moods, 
and so we find it in the Tibetan. We must suppose, 
then, that the ancestors of the Germans, Greeks, 
English, and Tibetians, adopted this mode of marking 
tense, mood, and conjugation, from the Semites. 

The distinction of masculine and feminine is also 
of Semite origin, and with it the idea of dual and 
plural numbers. 

The conception of mood and tense is chiefly Turanian. 
To this the Indo-European has, as its own contribution, 
added the distinction of voice, the augments of the 
past tenses, an increased number of tenses, and a very 
full development of the personal endings. 

A Greek verb has in its imperative the simple root, 
as found in all languages. Its particles and infinitive, 
past, future, conjunctive, and other forms, are Turanian. 
They are made by verbal and pronominal suffixes, in 
many cases identical with those used in Turanian 
languages. The theory of the conjugation of verbs 
rests on the mode of viewing the verb. It is regarded 
as a substantive, and the infinitive and participles were 
apparently first formed, the verb being here more 
concrete. From them came the past tenses of the 
indicative, in the manner already described in pre- 
ceding chapters. 



THE EUROPEAN WORD. 357 

The formation of compounds reveals to us the 
principle of juxtaposition, as in the oldest stems. 
Thus, in XevfcoaroXos, " white- robed," the law of order 
is as in Chinese and Turanian. Where a preposition 
combines with a verb or noun to form a compound, 
the principle of order is Turanian, and not Chinese. 
Thus, /caraTrarea), " to trample down," is in Chinese 
chat hia, or, as the ancient sages would have pro- 
nounced it, dat ge, where ge, the equivalent of Kara, 
comes last. The English agrees with the Chinese, 
and the principle of arrangement is that of the juxta- 
position of two verbs in the order of time. But in 
English the word down, originally a verb, has become 
an adverb. In the Greek compound the principle of 
arrangement is Turanian. The word Kara, originally 
a verb, " to go down," and the same with the Chinese 
ge, or hia, and the Japanese kudaru, "go down," is 
here found in the position of the adverbs of space and 
direction, as in Mongol dotal tebi, "place below." So 
in English understand, in German verstehen. So in 
Russian nishodit, "to go down," where ni, "down," 
is connected with nijnie, "lower," as in the name Nijnie 
Novgorod, literally "the lower new city." The English 
down is the Latin de, the Chinese ti, "bottom," and 
the Mongol do, "below." Thus the Indo-European 
languages in their prepositional verb compounds use a 
Turanian law of arrangement, while giving to the pre- 
position a verb force which is peculiar to those languages. 



358 



European Syntax. 

The syntax of the European languages is a mixture. 
It contains Chinese, Semitic, and Turanian principles. 
The order of words is either natural or inverted. 
"Where it is natural, as in " William's son," " tall 
man," "William struck Thomas," "quickly fly," "with 
a stick William struck Thomas," the order is usually 
Chinese and primeval. Where it is inverted, as in 
" the son of William," " un ouvrier industrieux," " du 
sollst Gfott, deinen Herrn, anbeten," 1 " thou shalt 
worship God thy Lord," it is by principles derived 
from the more ancient Semitic and Turanian families. 
The post-position of the adjective, genitive, and adverb, 
is Semitic ; that of the verb is Turanian. 

The effect of Semitic influence is seen at its maxi- 
mum in the translations of the Scriptures made in the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, e.g., in Luther's, 
we read, " Aller Augen, die in der Schule, sahen auf 
ihn." The English version reads, "And the eyes of 
all them that were in the synagogue were fastened on 
him." The relative clause in both cases is thoroughly 
Semitic. The only feature not Semitic is in the 
German, in the order of the words aller Augen, " eyes 
of all." The Mongol would be horal on dotora baiksan 
hwun bugudeger nidun yer teguni sirtabai, which might 
be translated word for word thus, "Synagogue's within 
being men all eyes-with him observed." All refers to 
1 Luther's Bible, Luke iv. 8. 



GREEK. 359 

men, and with to eyes. Him is the accusative after 
observed. The participle being is in the past tense, 
and here performs the duty of the relative. 

The same Semitic influence, however, appears in 
Homer. Thus, in ava% avSpoov, "king of men," the 
genitive comes last, and the adjective in Sovpl re /xaKpS, 
" with a long spear." 

Greek. 

The Greek seems to be specially founded on the 
Chinese in regard to tones. For what are the acute, 
grave, and circumflex accents but Chinese tones ? Yet 
we have found tones existing in the Himalaic lan- 
guages and also in a dialect of the Mongol. It is, 
therefore, uncertain from what source in particular 
the Greek accents are derived. 

Yocal sounds are necessarily either emphasized or 
slurred, even or inflected, high or low, long or short, 
or, in other words, admit of distinctions in emphasis, 
tone, pitch and quantity. In modern Europe the 
quick rising inflexion or tone is appropriated to ques- 
tions. When and where this began it is difficult to 
say. It would not be much needed in ancient Greek, 
for in that language very commonly interrogative 
words were placed at the beginning of sentences, and 
this inflexion was probably the proper sound of the 
acute accent. The grave accent would then be the 
quick descending inflexion heard in modern Europe 



360 china's place in philology. 

as the tone of commands. The circumflex would be a 
combination of the rising and falling inflexion. 

Long and short quantity may be illustrated in 
Eastern Asia by the distinction between long and short 
tones in the south-eastern dialects of China, and that 
between long and short vowels in Sanscrit. 

The Greek circumflex was attached only to syllables 
long by nature. The Chinese circumflex or double 
inflexion may be applied to any word, according as it 
happens in the local habit of any dialect to be appro- 
priated to this or that tone class to which the word in 
question belongs. 

The occurrence of a long vowel in the last syllable 
of a Greek word necessitated the change of a circum- 
flex to an acute accent in the penultimate. Thus, 
<f>evy€ became <f>evya), and oho? became olvov. This 
change resembles the change of inflexion noticed some- 
times in Chinese compounds. In the Peking pronun- 
ciation of shui sheu, "sailor," the application of the 
lower slow rising inflexion (which properly belongs to 
them) to both words would be unpleasant to the ear. 
The first word takes instead the upper quick rising 
inflexion. In Pekinese, as in the ancient Greek, it is 
easier to pronounce a long inflexion before a short 
syllable than before a long one. 

Prefixes threw the accent back. Thus, tvittw, 
" I strike," became ervirre, " he struck." iraihevros 
" taught," became aTralhevros, "untaught." So in the 



LIST OF GREEK AND MONGOL COMMON WORDS. 361 

Pekinese dialect, composition often deprives the last 
word of its emphasis. Thus, Yamen, " public office for 
despatch of business," which originally means " flag 
door," is emphasized on the first syllable, which keeps 
its proper tone, the upper quick rising inflexion, while 
the last syllable, requiring the same inflexion, is slurred 
over. A prefix in this instance deprives the word men, 
" door," of its tone. 

The special resemblance of Greek to Chinese and 
Mongol may be judged of by the following examples : 

avrSs, "he," "same," "himself," Mongol adeli, "same," Latin idem. 

oIkos, " house," Latin vicus, "village," Chinese ok, " house." 

6pd(i>, "see," Mongol harahu, "see," "look at steadily." 

6d\ao-(ra, " sea," Mongol dalai, " sea." 

tyevSos, "lie," Chinese put, "not," Latin falsus, English false. 

<xv, " thou," Latin tu, Mongol chi, Mandarin si, Doric rv. 

ovk, " not," Mongol ugei, " there is none." 

avotya), " to open," Mongol nehehu, " to open." 

tv6\is, "city," German burg, Mongol balgasun, "fortified place," 

"city." 
ti.p<ri)v, " male," Mongol ere, " male," Latin vir. 
Qxxa, "to sacrifice," Mongol tehihu, "to sacrifice." 
Kvavos, "dark blue," Chinese hiuen, gun, "dark." 
criSripos, "iron," Chinese t l it, Mongol tumur. 
Kvuiv, "dog," Latin canis, Chinese kHuen, English hound, 
tyvxti, "soul," "life," Chinese p'ak, " animal soul." 
k*\cuv6s, "black," Mongol Kara, Chinese kek. 
irevdSs, "grief," Chinese pei, pit, "grieved." 
yrj, " earth," Mongol gajir, " earth." 

On these words the following observations are offered. 
1. As the Mongol adeli is nearer to avros than to idem, 
and chi and si, " thou," are nearer to the Ionic av than 
the Latin and Doric, it may be inferred that the old 



362 china's place in philology. 

Turanian colony, whose language influenced the Greek, 
would be in juxtaposition with the Ionian Greeks in 
Asia Minor. 

2. The same supposed Turanian colony would add 
the second syllable ga to the root bal, " city," after 
separation from the Greeks, but while still in the 
neighbourhood of the Gothic stem. For instance, this 
may have taken place on the east of the Caspian Sea, 
where the Goths were long settled. 

3. The addition of the favourite sibilant suffix in 
most of these words would take place after the epoch 
of Turanian influence, and therefore after the time 
when the infinitive in etv, the participles in cov, fjuev, 
and a-, the past tenses in tc and a, etc., were formed. 
Thus, /3ov\£vofi,€v was formed before fiovXevofievos, and 
aman, " loving," before amans. 

4. The change of t to s is specially prominent in 
Greek, Hebrew, and Mongol. It is greater in Hebrew 
and Greek than in Mongol. It may be regarded 
then as a characteristic of "Western Asia, where the 
Turanians seem to have been settled before they were 
in Tartary. The existence of a law like this goes far to 
show that these three language- stems have one origin. 

Latin. 

The resemblance of the Latin verb to that of the 
Tartar dialects is most remarkably seen in the gerund 
and supine. In this part of the verb the Latin is 



LIST OF LATIN AND MONGOL COMMON WORDS. 363 

peculiarly old, and reveals a special affinity for that 
Turanian characteristic which views the verb as pre- 
dominantly a substantive. Only in Sanscrit, where 
the use of the participle is specially extended, is the 
influence of the Turanian idea equally prominent. In 
the pronouns and adverbs some remarkable similarities 
to Latin words in Turkish, Mongol, and Japanese, have 
been already pointed out. The following examples will 
help to give an enlarged idea of the number of such 
resemblances : — 



homo, " man," Mongol humun, Chinese nin. 
vulgus, "people," Greek oxAos, Mongol olos. 
vetus, "old," Mongol otolji, " old." 
egeo, "to be in want," Mongol ugei, " there is none." 
os, ossis, " bone," Greek bffreov, Mongol yesa. 
aurwn, "gold," Mongol alte, "gold." 
puto, "think," Mongol bodaho, "think," "compute." 
odi, "hate," Mongol usihu, "hate." 
pauci, "few," baga, "small," English few. 
emo, " buy," Chinese mat, English buy. 
alter, alius, " other," Mongol ore, German oder, Greek &\\os. 
oppidum, "town," Chinese ip, "city." Compare urbs. 
jus, Justus, "just," Mongol yoso, "right." 
qucero, "seek," quceso, "pray," Mongol goyoho, "pray," Chinese 

gu, "seek," "pray." 
ambulo, "walk," Mongol yabahu. 
alius, "high," Mongol undur. 
mille, "thousand," Mongol minggen. 

decet, "it is becoming," Mongol johistai, Chinese tong, tok, "ought." 
peto, " seek," Mongol badaraho, " seek." 

The old form ollus for Me, " he," is the Turkish ol, 
"he." Examples of resemblance to Turkish, Manchu, 



364 china's place in philology. . 

Mongol, and Chinese words occur in all parts of speech 
in the Latin vocabulary. So with the Tibetan, as in 
nig, " black," which is the same with niger. 

This similarity in words and in the conjugation of 
the verb is well borne out by the syntax. Compared 
with Greek, the Latin syntax shows more of Turanian 
influence. The greater freedom and flow noticed in 
the Greek arrangement of words is due to a more 
thorough and prolonged intercourse with Phoenicians, 
Assyrians, and other ancient Semite races. The dif- 
ferent spirit of Greek and Latin syntax finds its 
solution here. 

The Turanian element in Latin syntax may be 
noticed in the favourite position of the verb. In 
Livy's First Book the following sentences occur : 
" Nondum maturus imperio Ascanius iEneae filius 
erat." A Greek would not put the little verb erat, 
" was," last in the sentence. A Turanian could place 
it nowhere else. " Tamen id imperium ei ad puberem 
aetatem incolume mansit." The arrangement is Tu- 
ranian, except that the preposition ad, "till," should 
take the place of a suflix after cetatem. " Tantisper 
tutela muliebri (tanta indoles in Lavinia erat) res 
Latina et regnum avitum paternumque puero stetit." 
In this sentence the Turanian element operating on 
the syntax keeps the verb in its place at the end, in 
the parenthesis, and in the principal sentence. The 
position of four adjectives after their nouns is evidence 



TURANIAN SYNTAX IN LATIN. 365 

of Semitic influence, and this principle is retained in 
the French language to the present time. The natural 
place of the adjective is, however, retained by tanta 
before indoles. 

" Ab eo colonise aliquot deductse, Prisci Latini appel- 
Jati." The first of the two participles in this sentence 
corresponds in position to the Turanian gerund occur- 
ring at the end of a subordinate clause. The last 
participle, used here as a perfect indicative, corresponds 
to the Mongol past participle in ksan, which is also 
constantly used as a perfect indicative, terminating the 
principal clause. The introduction of the parenthesis 
is impossible in Eastern Asiatic syntax. Western 
freedom originated this phenomenon. 

The Latin seems to stand further back in time than 
the other European languages, and possesses an air of 
antique dignity which has been derived from the east. 
Roman solemnity and power appear in marked contrast 
to Greek poetry and life. Among the causes which 
produced this variety in the language, as in the history 
and literature of these two races, probably none was 
more powerful than the intimate intercourse they had 
in a long distant antiquity with Turanian and Semitic 
peoples. The character of the Roman family relation- 
ships is strongly suggestive of connexion with China 
and Tartary. The Latin gens and the Celtic clan are 
the counterpart of the Chinese zoic (Latin socius) and 
the Mongol turul. The Latin patruus and avunculus, 



366 china's place in philology. 

uncle on the father's, and on the mother's side, 
respectively, agree in sense with the Mongol dbaga and 
nagacho, and with the Chinese pak and gu. The 
resemblance of Mongol and Eoman usage is here 
the more observable, because the Chinese subdivides 
the relationship on the father's side into two classes. 
The uncles who are older than the father are called 
pak, and those who are younger are known as shok. 
The Manchu amji and echig correspond with the 
Chinese. The Mongol calls both kinds of uncles abaga. 
Other remarkable agreements between Chinese and 
Eoman customs exist. For example, the Romans 
used raised altars of earth or stone for the worship of 
heavenly divinities, and scooped a hollow in which to 
place offerings to those that are terrestrial. The 
Chinese offerings of bullocks and silk at the Temple 
of Heaven are presented on an elevated altar, while 
at that of Earth they are, both silk and bullock, buried 
in the ground. The belief in the presence of spiritual 
beings in the woods, streams, trees, cultivated fields, 
and mountains, and the worship of them, was very 
similar among the ancient Eomans and the ancient 
Chinese, so much so as frequently to impress the reader 
of passages in the Chinese classics bearing on these sub- 
jects with the idea of ancient connexion with the old 
Latin religion. The whole argument for the common 
origin of eastern and western nations might perhaps 
securely rest alone on the institution of sacrifices and 



THE RUSSIAN SYLLABLE REDUCED. 367 

religious ideas. No one can deny the remarkable 
similarities between the religions of the old western 
world and China, which spring up to view on making 
special inquiry. But the main scope of our investi- 
gation is philological, and it is well to attend chiefly 
tp that branch of evidence. 

EUSSIAN. 

The Eussian language shows what the Sclavonic type 
of European speech has arrived at in its most modern 
form. It has a very full alphabet, including s, z, J, sh, 
ts, ch, and an aspirated ch among its sibilants. The old 
final g or k of a root syllable is often found in Eussian 
changed to/ or ch. Thus Bog, " God," 1 becomes bojie, 
"divine." The compound ts represents an old t, as 
tzel, in German Ziel, in Greek reXo?, "end," "aim." 

The letter v represents the w of Chinese and English, 
and the v of Latin and German, as in voda, " water," 
volga, "will." 

As an initial, z represents an old g, as zoloto, for 
" gold," zina for hyems, "winter," znanie, " knowledge," 
yvcoais. 

The Eussian language is fond of prefixing several 
consonants to the root, as in vshochit, vsklochit, " to clot," 
" entangle." Klochit means the same thing. The pre- 
fixed s is the usual Indo-European sibilant prefix, and 

1 Supposed to come from the Sanscrit bhagavat, " the blessed," " the 
glorious," " the adorable." 



368 china's place in philology. 

the initial v is an old u placed before the word in the 
Greek and Mongol fashion. The / is inserted, as in the 
English word, after the initial consonant of the root. 

Sometimes a concourse of consonants is caused by a 
vowel dropping out, as in mnogie, "many," where the 
English word, shows that an a has been lost. The word 
for " prince " is knyaz, and is the same as the Grerman 
Kdnig, " king." The g is softened into a sibilant, but 
is retained in the feminine hnyaginya, " princess." The 
Chinese is Jciun or kon, "chief," " leader." 

The Russian declension of nouns and verb paradigm 
are very full, and in this respect the language wears an 
old aspect. 

The syntax is simple and modern, and seems to have 
fewer inversions than the Sclavonic, from which it has 
sprung. A few examples here follow, taken from the 
ecclesiastical Sclavonic version of the New Testament, 
now about seven centuries old, and the modern Russian 
version published in 1862 by order of the Synod of 
Moscow. Acts i. 7. Sclavonic : Muja dva stasia pred 
nimi bo odejdi byelye. In English, translated word for 
word, this reads, " men two stood by them in clothing 
white." The Russian is vdritg predstali ime dva muja ve 
byeloi odejdye, "suddenly stood by them two men in 
white clothing." The Russian restores the adjective 
to its place before the noun. It uses a compound 
predstali for " stood by." It is formed by prefixing the 
preposition pred, "near," as our word bystander, from by. 



ANGLO-SAXON. 369 

Acts ii. 31. Sclavonic : I budet ve poslyedniya dni y 
glagolete Gospod izliyo o Buha moigo na vsyaku plot. 
" And shall be in last days, saith Lord, I will pour of 
Spirit my on all flesh." The Eussian is almost identical 
with the Sclavonic. I budet ve poslyetnie dni, govorite 
Boge izliyo ote Buhe Moego na vsyakuyo plot. A new 
word, govorit, is introduced for " saith." The Sclavonic 
and Eussian word Boge, " God," is substituted for 
Gospode, "Lord," which seems to have come into the 
Sclavonic version through inadvertence. The word 
plot in Sclavonic and Eussian is our "flesh," the con- 
sonant / not being used in the Sclavonic. Buhe, 
" Spirit," is the Hebrew ruahh, " spirit," " wind." 
The preposition ve, "in," is also Semitic. 

Acts iii. 15. Sclavonic : Naehalnika je jizni ubili. 
Literal English : " Prince and of life they killed." 
Eussian : A naehalnika jizni ubili, " And prince of life 
they killed." The Eussian restores "and" to its place 
at the beginning of the sentence. The Sclavonic je, 
"and," like its etymological equivalent que in Latin, is 
placed after its noun. In this example, so nearly the 
same in both languages, there seems to be no sufficient 
reason for placing the verb last, except the presence of 
a Turanian element, the same which we have found 
powerfully operating in Sanscrit and in Latin. 

Anglo-Saxon. 
The following sentences are taken from Vernon's 

24 



370 china's place in philology. 

Anglo-Saxon Guide. " He cannot help him," is ren- 
dered by He him helpan ne maeg, " He him help not 
may." " How she may escape from the hostile spirits," 
is translated, Hu heo tham feondlicum gastum othfleon 
mage, " How she the hostile spirits escape may." 

The syntax is Turanian. " May " is here to be 
regarded as the indicative verb closing the sentence. 
Immediately before it comes the infinitive " fly." The 
adjective "hostile" preceds its noun, gastum. These 
words in the ablative case constitute with the initial 
pronoun a circumstantial clause preceding the clause 
which contains the principal verb. Before this circum- 
stantial parenthesis stands the nominative. All so far 
is Turanian. Only the adverb " how" is out of its place. 
It should immediately precede the verb " escape." This 
is the single exception to Turanian order. 

So frequently does the verb occur at the end of the 
sentence, after its accusative, or following some circum- 
stantial clause, that it may be concluded, respecting the 
Anglo-Saxon as compared with modern English, that it 
was much more pervaded by the Turanian spirit. The 
same thing may be said of German when compared with 
English. 

The Anglo-Saxon, like the Latin and German, broke 
partially free from this law, which in Sanscrit and in 
the three Turanian families ties the verb to the end of 
the sentence. The modern English has escaped from it 
entirely. 



REACTION IN FAVOUR OF PRIMEVAL LAWS. 371 

"With this instance of the gradual abandonment of 
Turanian grammar in the modern European languages 
agrees the ever- advancing focay of the marks of declen- 
sion and conjugation. Our ancestors a thousand years 
ago declined the word guma, " man," which is also, 
when slightly modified, good Mongol and Latin, 
with four variations of the suffix, namely, nominative 
a, accusative, ablative, and genitive an, ablative 
and dative plural urn, and genitive plural ena. The 
adjective soth, " true," our sooth, the Chinese zliet, 
" real," and the Mongol siclorago, " honest," has applied 
to it the suffixes ne, e, urn, es, re, ra, which supply it 
with five cases, two numbers, and three genders. Just 
as this more complex system of suffixes used in the 
days of Alfred connects our modern English with the 
original Indo-European mother-language, so the deeper 
tinge of Turanian influence in the syntax of the same 
age forms a midway link between the English of the 
nineteenth century and a still older Turanian model. 

But behind the Turanian influence there is a still 
older one, that of the language of which Chinese is the 
type. Turania cannot furnish a satisfactory solution 
of the problem of the origin of language. In a still 
earlier age nature was true to herself, and inversions 
were still unknown. Chinese syntax is much more 
natural than the Turanian ; and the English of modern 
days, and the Greek of two thousand years ago, are 
found returning to the more simple laws of arrange- 



372 china's place in philology. 

merit which were familiar both to the ancient Chinese 
and to the language of the Antediluvians. China 
throws light on the problem by showing that the 
Turanian and Sanscrit awkwardness in syntax is in 
truth not ^primeval, but an inversion of natural laws, 
introduced contemporaneously with the growth of cases, 
tenses, and moods. 

Language in its developments has been always con- 
trolled by the desire to arrive at a measured and ele- 
vated expression. "What is attempted at a later period 
in poetry is sought at an earlier time in language. 
There is discernible in all speech an unconscious long- 
ing after internal harmony and symmetry. The desire 
for ideal beauty which God has implanted in the soul 
must be satisfied as far as possible in the creations of 
the language-forming faculties. The poet, seeking this 
ideal, voluntarily places himself under the limitations 
of art. Language is, although unconsciously, always 
doing the same thing. The Semite, fond of bold 
imagery, imagined the objects of nature to possess the 
distinctions of sex. A few centuries passed and his 
language became thoroughly permeated with this idea. 
A few more, and a male and female mythology grew 
into popular belief. The Indo-Europeans adopted both 
the idea of gender in language and of sex in mythology 
which they found among those to whom they then 
looked as teachers and examples. 

On the other side, the Turanian race left the Chinese 



ALLITERATION IN POETRY. 373 

freedom, and adopted a certain rigid law in syntax. 
The verb, relegated to the end of the sentence, gave 
origin in great part to case suffixes, and the moods 
and tenses of Turanian grammar. These became the 
fruitful source of an abundance of word-forms imitated 
by those who first used Indo-European speech, then in 
the time of its youth and its greatest susceptibility of 
impression. After many generations, language became 
weary of these strict rules, of a long array of cases, and 
a complex system of moods. She is now throwing away 
these encumbrances as fast as she can, and has, in the 
English language at least, already attained to an almost 
entire freedom from them. 

The Anglo-Saxon poetry and that of ancient Germany 
was alliterative for the same reason that Mongol poetry 
is so. It was partly because words having polysyllabic 
suffixes are unsuitable for rhyme or metre, and also, 
probably, on account of both these schools having re- 
ceived the laws of their versification from some unknown 
race which originated alliteration in poetry. Rhyming 
was not practised by the Germans in their poetry till 
the Christian period. 1 Alliteration characterized all 
their oldest heathen versification, such as was used, for 
instance, in the war-songs of which Tacitus speaks. 

The Anglo-Saxon alliteration is less regular than the 
Mongol. In Mongol, a poem may begin, for example, 

1 Weber's "Weltgeschichte, 6th edit. Vol. ii. Geschichte der Deutsclien 
Literatur. 



374 



with a. Each principal word in the first, second, third, 
and fourth lines will also begin with a. In the next 
stanza another letter will be used in the same manner. 
In the third stanza, a third, and so on. Thus the 
system is more like that of the old Hebrew alliteration, 
as in Psalm cxix., where the letter Aleph occurs at the 
beginning of each of the eight verses, Beth at the be- 
ginning of each of the second eight, and so on to the 
end of the alphabet. In Anglo-Saxon the irregular 
repetition of the alliterated initial in two or three 
principal words is enough. The poet does not attempt to 
carry the alliteration through more than two lines. 1 He 
prefers to begin a new alliteration with some other letter. 
Phyme is best suited for languages where mono- 
syllabic roots abound. Polysyllabic suffixes render it 
impossible, or not agreeable to the ear. There would 
be no pleasure felt by the Mongol ear in the repetition 
at the end of several consecutive lines of three or four 
past tenses, such as yababa, "went," taraba, "agreed," 
sanaba, " thought," hairaba, " returned." For the same 
reason the Greeks and Latins used no rhymes, because 
they had few words without suffixes, and the repetition 
of mere suffixes in rhyme would have been wearisome 
and inharmonious. Rhyme came into use in Europe 
when derivative suffixes began to decay. In the Chinese 
language rhyme was always used. It is found in the 
most ancient portions of the Book of History. It suits 
1 Vernon's Anglo-Saxon Guide. 



LIST OF ENGLISH AND CHINESE COMMON WORDS. 375 

a monosyllabic language, because the emphasis and the 
rhyme fall together on radical syllables. In English 
and German the number of monosyllabic words is large, 
and hence the rhyme can be so arranged as to fall on 
roots, and not on servile syllables. It is this circum- 
stance that renders the device of rhyme pleasing, and a 
suitable ornament of poetry. 

English. 

A list of identical words will now be given, to show 
the extent to which the Chinese and English vocabu- 
laries agree. After the Chinese new and old pronun- 
ciations will be added a few examples of the forms 
assumed by the same roots in some select languages. 

Avoid, jj£ wei, wit, Latin veto, vito, dwido. 

Augment, Jfc Vh yik, Latin augeo, Greek avgdvco, 
German wachsen, English wax. 

Back, ^ pei, pok, Persian pusht, Greek oTriao). 

Baggage, |f fu, bok, Russian poklaja. 

Bake, ffy p'au, bok, Persian pochtan, Latin frigo, 
Greek (ppvyay. 

Bang, {1 p'eng, bang. 

Bear H fu, bu, be, Latin fero, porto, Greek <f>ep(o. 

Beat, ffi fa, bat, Latin batuo, Eussian bit. 

Bed, U? pei, bi, bit, " to spread," " a covering." 

Black, |H me, mek, " ink," " coal," " that which is 
black," Greek fxekas, Sanscrit malina. 

Boat, $g fa, bat, Anglo-Saxon bat, Eussian bot. 

Bow, ffi fu, bok, German bogen. 



376 



Break, ||§ pH, p f ik, " cleave with a hatchet," Latin 
frango^fractus, Sanscrit bhagna, "broken," Hebrew J?pS, 
"cleave." 

Bright, £j pe, bak, Sanscrit bhaj, "shine," Latin 
fulgeo. 

Burn, ^ fen, bun, Latin pruna, Greek irvp. 

But, boot (to add), $%. pei, pi, pit, Anglo-Saxon botan. 

Buy, bought, j| mai, mui, muh, Latin emo. 

Call, HIj* tow, #0, kok, Greek /caXeco. 

Can, " a cylindrical drinking vessel," Jg kwan, kan, 
^ &aw, "a pipe." Hence anything long and round, 
as channel, through the Latin canalis, and cane, from 
canna, in Chinese jpfl ta, " a stalk." 

Certain, ^ kiue, kit, Latin certus. 

Chaste, gg /he, M, " clean," Latin castus, Greek 

Cough, jig &'<?, &'o&, German keiche, Greek ko'i^co. 
Cow, ^t mew, gnu, Sanscrit go. 
Crooked, |}f| k'iu, k'ok, Latin curvus. 
Crow, kwa, ku, Sanscrit kdka, Latin corms. 
Cut, ffj] yfo, &dtf, Latin ccedo, Hebrew yi_Z. 
Day, §1* cAew, fo&, German &?#", Latin dies. 
Deem, »[^ e'^w, dim, Eussian doomali, " think." 
Dew, J| lu, lok, Sanscrit dai, German than, Latin ros. 
Din, m Aw, c£m, " noise of war drums." 
Dong, ding-dong, §§ chung, tang, " bell." 
Down, $£ ti> " low," " bottom," Latin deorsum, 
Mongol ddra. 



LIST OF ENGLISH AND CHINESE COMMON WORDS. 377 

Drag, draw, dray, j£ t'o, Pa, Latin traho, tracto, 
German Ziehen. 

Eager, ffi yu, yok, " to desire," Latin acer. 

Ear, hear, 3=p rh, ngi, Persian gosh, Sanscrit ghosha, 
Turkish kulak, Latin auris, German ohr, horen. 
p Eat, Pg wei, wid, tvat, Sanscrit annam, "food," Mongol 
idehu, " eat," Latin vescor. 

Elk, H» lu, lok, Eussian los, German elch. 

Embrace, Q pau, pok, Latin amplector, brachium, 
"arm," Greek 7n}%i/?. 

Fast, >gj pi, pit, Mongol bedu, ° firm," Greek ir&rros, 
Latin fides, Sanscrit bad, "to be steady," Hebrew /tO!p, 
"he trusted." 

Father, $&fu, bo, Latin, pater, Hebrew a b, Turkish baba. 

Flee, jjftfcpi, bi, bik } ~La,tmfugio, Greek fevyco, German 
fliehen, Russian biegat, "avoid," Hebrew ITl^. 

Fly, flit, Jg fei, pi, pit, Sanscrit patat, "bird," Greek 
TreT€ivo<$. 

Foetus, JJ p'ei, pH, p'it, Latin foetus. 

Fold (as in two-fold), fg pel, bei, bit (as in san pel, 
"three-fold"). 

Forth, fg fa, pat, " express," " go forth." 

Foundation, ;$* pen, pun, Latin fundamentum. 

Gather, Jf hivei, git. 

Give, ^ Arc, ^J9, German grefow. 

Glad, -jij A*, ArcY, Latin gaudeo, gratus, Greek yrjdco. 

Go, gang, ft hing, gang. 

Goose, $§ ngo, Russian gus, Mongol galagad. 



378 



Grip, grasp, 7^ kia, kap, "take under the arm or 
with tweezers," Latin capio, habeo. 

Gullet, P^ lieu, gu, Sanscrit gola, Latin gula, German 
hals, "neck." 

Hate, fj hwei, git. 

He, :& h% gi, Latin hie, Hebrew &On. 

Head, ^ kia, kap, "coat of mail," "first in rank," 
"cover," H kai, kap, "covering on the top," caput, 
KefyaXrj, kopf, haupt. 

Hem (as a substantive), $§5 kin, kim, "hem of a 
garment," "a boundary"; (as a verb) ij| kin, kim, "to 
prohibit," "restrain," Russian kaima. 

High, "^ kau, kok, Latin celsus, German hoch. 

Hollow, Jjj| hu, ku, Latin cavus, German koi\os. 

Hook, ^ keu, kok. 

Hoop (cooper), $S ku, kup. 

Horn, j| kio, kak, Latin cornu, Greek Kepas, Hebrew 
VX)^ Sanscrit sringa, Persian shag. 

Hot, |& je, nyit, Mongol halon, Latin calidus, German 
heiss. 

House, ^ kia, ke, Latin casa, Mongol gere. 

Humble, jf| kHen, k'im, Latin humilis. 

Hymn, B^ yin, gim, " to chant," Greek vfivos. 

I, ^ ngo, nga, Latin ego, German ich. 

Kick, gfl kio, kak, "foot," Welsh eic, "foot," ciciaw, 
" kick." 

King, ;g W», to, Welsh kun, " a chief," German 
Konig. 



LIST OF ENGLTSH AND CHINESE COMMON WORDS. 379 

Lake, ^ che, dak, Latin lacus. 

Lamp, j;f{ Ian, lam, Greek Xapnras. 

Lath, g£ lie, lit, " to split/' " a rent," or " slit." 

Law, jg! li, li, leg, Latin &#, Greek \6yos. 

Leaf, ^ ^e, dip, "butterfly," (so called from its leaf- 
like wings,) jg tie, dip, " fold one thing over another," 
Mongol lap&hi, " leaf." 

Lick, ^ c'hang, dong, Latin /m^o, to', Greek Xe/%o). 

Long, J| c'hang, dong, Latin longus. 

Mill, jg mo, ma, " grind," Latin wofe. 

Mother, -g: ww, mo, Greek /jb^rrjp. 

Much, j|l mo, mo&, "abundant" (used in poetry). 

Muck, j% mo, mok, " dust." 

Paint, ^^ piau, pik, " to draw," " to adorn," Latin 
pictor, pice, pingo. 

Pair, |jjj p ( ei, p ( i, Latin js9#r. 

Part, glj ^e, jmY, 6#, " to part from," " different," 
Latin pars, portio, partio, Hebrew /*7?> " he divided." 

Paunch, JjJ fu, bok, German bauch. 

Peace, £J5 p'ing, bang, " even," " peace," Latin pax. 

Peel, )fc p ( i, ba, Latin pellis. 

Peg, pierce, Jlj " to pierce by setting on a spear." 
Compare the words prick, pick, spoke, poke, pike, with the 
Sanscrit pij, " kill," Greek m/cpos, Latin pungo, pugno, 
German fechten. 

Pledge, jg pHng, bang, " lean on," " proof," Latin 
pignus, German pflegen. 

Pot, $5 pei, put, " cup," Sanscrit pdtra. 



380 china's place in philology. 

Prepare, fl§ pei, hi, Mongol belehu, Latin paro. 

Put (in put forth), fg fa, pat, " go forth," or " be 
put forth." 

Quiet, ^ hie, kit, Latin quies, quietis. 

Quoth, fjjf hwa, gwat, " say," " words," Sanscrit kath, 
Latin cedo. 

Reed, rod, |j lu, lut, German rohr, Latin arundo. 

Right, ]g clii, dik, " straight," Latin rectus, Greek 
BUaios, Sanscrit dakshina, " right." 

Ring, fjf $wgr, Jwgr, "collar." 

Round, fj| &m, "revolve," "awheel." 

Row, 3H fe«, fo, fo£, " a scull," German rwtfer, " oar," 
Latin renins, remigo, Greek eperfio?. 

Rude, j§» he, lod, Latin rudis. 

Rule, g| K% " to govern," %, Latin regula, rego, rex. 

Sad, '[$ few, efeo£, " sorry." 

Same, § 2'saw, ^saw, saw, "blend with," "be one 
with," Latin similis. 

Satisfy, j( sh'i, zhit, " full," " real," Latin satis. 

Say, gjp sw, sok, " tell," German sffaw, saga. 

Seed, ;jJH s#, satf, Latin sero, sator, Sclavonic syet, "sow." 

Seek, §^ so, sok, " seek," German suchen. Compare 
search. 

Self, fj taj, efee, zi, Latin se, German se$s£. 

Serve, Jp sA'i, *A£, Latin servo, servus, Sanscrit shach, 
" to serve," sri, " to serve." 

Set, |g s/*e, sM, Latin sisto, sedeo, Hebrew TV&. 

Shed, <§> she, shed, " cottage," §f s/^', sM, " house." 



LIST OF ENGLISH AND CHINESE COMMON WORDS. 381 

To shed, Jg she, shed, "let go," "forgive." 

Shine, jtp§ shen, shin, German scheinen, Latin candeo. 

Shoot, ^ sh'i, shed, " arrow," " to swear," German 
schiessen. 

Sigh, Jfj, si, sik, German sorge, Sanscrit suka, " air," 
'J wind." 

Sing, %% sung, zung, "to chant," £|[ sung, song, 
"to praise." 

Sister, jj$ ts'i, tsi, Latin soror. 

Slay, |g lu, lok, German schlachten, Anglo-Saxon 
sleahan. 

Small, {U wei, mi, Latin minutus, minor, Russian 
malo, Mongol baga. 

Smell, ^ wei, mi, " odour," Persian bui. 

Sot, JH to", £sw£, sot, " become intoxicated." 

Sound, ^ Psiuen, zien, " sound," " whole," " all," 
Latin sanus, German gesund. 

Sound (of voice), sheng, shang, Sanscrit sramana, 
" hearer," Latin sonitus. 

Split, jjlj pie, pit, " to separate." 

Spoke (of a wheel), $g /w, j?o&. 

Spread, $§ po, pat, "scatter," Latin pateo, "lie open," 
German breit, English broad, Mongol badaraho, "spread." 

Stand, stood, ^j ta, dat, "tread upon," Japanese 
tatta, " stand," Tamil tan, " stand," Latin sto. 

Step, gg t l a, dap, " to step," Russian stupat. 

Stick, $g c'^w, tf f 0&, "pierce," Latin s%o, German 



382 



Straight, jg ch'i, dik, Tamil takudi, " right, " Latin 
rectus, Greek 8tfcaio$, "just." 

Strike, fj ta, tang, Mongol tugsehu, " beat," Hebrew 
ym, " struck." 

Strong, J|£ chivang, tong. 

Suck, Pj£ su, tso, sok, Latin sago. 

Suet, 5$ su, sot, " fat about the entrails." 

Tablet, ^L and §lj cha, tap, " bamboo or wooden 
tablets." 

Take off, Jj| che, tak. 

Take on the person, JJJJ5 tai, tak. 

Tap, tapestry, Jg &ha, t'ap, " pierce," " prick," 
" embroider," German teppich, French tapis, English 
tap a tree or a barrel. 

That, the, this, J* ti, di, "this," Jf che, te, "this." 

Through, }g t'eu, t c ok, "thorough." 

Throw, $£ t'eu, du, dut, ^ tieu, to. 

To, JiJ tau, to. 

Tongue, ^jj c'hang, dung, "to taste," Latin lingo, lingua. 

Trickle, fjff ti, tik. 

Turn, K chwen, tun. 

Vain (that which is empty and unsubstantial), j^f yew, 
in, " smoke," j| yww, on, " cloud," Latin vanus, anima, 
English vanish. 

Wash, $J yu, yok, Mongol ogahu. 

We, ^ yw, iwi, "I." 

When, where, which, who, fpf ^0, ga, " what ? " 
H &, #a, " how many ? " 



LIST OF ENGLISH AND CHINESE COMMON WORDS. 383 

Wicked, g§ ngo, ak. 

Wind, flj tvan, " a bending," " to bend." 

Wish, %jfc yu, yok, Latin volo. 

Word, yue, wat y " say," German wort. 

Yoke (that which connects), ^fj yo, yak, " agree," 
"agreement," Latin jugum, jungo, Greek Qvyos. 

This vocabulary of 153 words is taken almost exclu- 
sively from the Saxon part of the English language. 
The few words of Latin origin which occur might as 
well be placed in a Latin list, but as they form part 
and parcel of our English tongue they have also a right 
to be here. 1 

The old pronunciation of the Chinese words is indis- 
pensable in the comparison, and has been inserted in 
one or two forms. 

Most of the words are such as belong to the pith and 
marrow of language, and are not unlikely to be really 
primeval. 

A considerable difference in meaning, such as occurs, 
for example, under the words "vain," "shed," "leaf," 
" shoot," is not a fatal objection to the identification of 
the words, because of the great lapse of time since the 
ancestors of the Chinese and English spoke a common 
language. 

The great advantage of the comparison of roots of 

1 For further examples, see Professor Haldeman's Relations between 
the Chinese and Indo-European Languages, p. 13, and Chalmers's Origin 
of the Chinese. 



384 china's place in philology. 

the European stock with those of the Chinese lies in 
the fact of the great antiquity of both. By lists such 
as those compiled by Eichhoff in his work on Compara- 
tive Grammar, English words are carried back to a 
period about two thousand years before the Christian 
era, because the Hindoo family cannot well have entered 
the Indian peninsula later, and the identification of the 
English and Sanscrit vocabularies is well established. 
But the Chinese vocabulary can be traced by the aid 
derived from the phonetic elements of the characters to 
a time equally ancient. During the lapse of four or 
five millenniums, the roots must be expected to appear 
not without some considerable modifications in the 
sense. When they are verbs in China, they may be 
nouns in England, and vice versa. The existence of 
these differences thus adds increased certainty to the 
identification. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Conclusion. — Primeval Aryan Civilization as Known from 
Language. — The Common Civilization of Aryans and Chinese 
may be Known from Language in the same Way. — Activity 
of the Third Millennium b.c. — Ethnology of Genesis X. 
Compared with the Modern Distribution of Races. — 
Characteristics of Families : The Chinese, Order ; The 
Semitic, Life ; The Himalaic, Quietness ; The Turanian, 
Extension ; The Malayo-Polynesian, Softness ; The Indo- 
European, Elevation ; All of One Blood. — Proof from 
Polynesian and American Traditions. — Resume.— Duty of 
Christians to Asia. 

Sufficient proof has already been given that a 
vocabulary of common words is just as possible for 
Europe and Eastern Asia as for Europe and India. 
If language proves that the English race is akin to 
the Hindoo, it also shows that it is akin to the Chinese. 
Philologists have shown that historical data may be 
recovered from the common vocabulary of the Indo- 
European family. Before their separation into Hindoo 
and Persian, Goth and Sclave, Greek and Latin, the 
Aryan race had towns and fortified places, reared cattle 
and ploughed the ground. They possessed as domestic 
animals the horse, swine, ox, dog, sheep, and goat ; l 

1 Whitney's Lectures on Language ; Max Muller's Lectures, first course, 
p. 223. 

25 



386 



they built ships ; they wove cloth ; they lived in houses ; 
they mined the earth for metals; they counted to a 
hundred ; they recognized the social duties and the 
family bonds. 

Similar results flow, as shown in the last chapter, 
from ao examination of the European and Chinese 
common vocabulary. We find there words used in the 
west for the horse, ox, dog, and domestic fowl. The 
boat was known, but not the ship. Weaving was 
practised, and was called by the same name by the 
Chinese as by the Latins. Wheels and carts were in 
use. Corn was ground with mill-stones. Wooden 
bowls were employed for holding food. The processes 
of sowing and reaping were known by the same simple 
names. The same is true of some useful vegetable pro- 
ductions. The Arabic word for flax, kuttan, is like the 
Chinese hot. The old Chinese had three words for 
houses of different sizes, corresponding to the European 
ol/cos, cot, and shed. 

If a complete comparative vocabulary were drawn up 
for each division of the Indo-European family, including 
the Celtic, Lithuanian, and Armenian, we should be in 
possession of all the important words in the primitive 
language spoken at the time when in the earth " there 
was one language and one speech." Roots which have 
survived the destroying effects of time through four 
thousand years may be assumed to have lived through 
the preceding period without much difficulty. The 



ACTIVITY OF THE THIRD MILLENIUM B.C. 387 

vitality of roots is most remarkable, and nothing brings 
it more vividly into view than the fact of their con- 
temporaneous existence through so many ages at the 
extreme ends of Europe and Asia. Perhaps five 
hundred roots would satisfy the wants of the first men. 
o The activity of the language- forming faculty was at 
its maximum during the period when the distribution 
of nations took place. At b.c 2000 most of the races 
were settled in the regions they now occupy. Since 
that time the language-forming faculty has limited 
itself to the evolution of new languages out of old ones. 
Before that epoch the formation of the families took 
place, and for this result a space of 1500 years is not 
too much. 

During the 1500 years which seem to have inter- 
vened between the Deluge and the final settlement of 
the races, bands of colonists were traversing every 
region of the vast inheritance assigned by Providence 
to the human family. The energy and enterprise 
revealed in the mighty emigrations of those times, 
were paralleled by an intense intellectual activity, 
which rapidly and unconsciously traced the outline of 
the linguistic systems which have ever since prevailed 
in the two continents of Europe and Asia. "What are 
now families were then languages, and they were 
cognate to one another as branches from the same 
stock. 

This time of busy activity is described in the tenth 



388 



and eleventh, chapters of the Book of Genesis, which 
constitute the most valuable record we possess for 
primeval ethnology. Independent investigation leads 
us to the same period, described in the Bible as that 
"when the earth was divided." The Confusion of 
Tongues at Babel marks the time when the families 
of language now existing became separated. Patient 
inquiry leads to the support of the Scriptural statement, 
and throws light upon it. It seems to refer specially 
to the separation of the Semites, Turanians, Indo- 
Europeans, and a part of the Himalaic race, for the 
rest of the families had probably already left the 
Mesopotamian region. 

The object of the compiler of the tenth chapter was 
ethnological as well as genealogical, for Mizraim's seven 
sons are rather, as the plural termination indicates, 
seven races, and Canaan is said to be the father of 
eleven races. 

As Cush had an eastern and western branch, so other 
races, usually located in the west, may also have an 
eastern habitat. The name Bod, common to several 
races in Eastern Asia, ought, as already said in a former 
chapter, to be compared with Phut, the name of the 
third son of Ham. 

The Confusion of Tongues was followed by the do- 
mination of the Semite language, from Elam in Western 
Persia to Lydia in Asia Minor, and from Assyria to 
Sheba and Ophir in the south of the Arabian penin- 



GENESIS TENTH AND MODERN ETHNOLOGY. 389 

sula. Striking traces of Semite influence are found in 
the Zend, the Persian, and all the Himalaic languages. 

The race of Ham extended into Africa. It fringed 
the sea- coast from Arabia Felix to the Indus, following 
the line of Cushite settlements. It then seems to have 
spread eastward, including the area of the Bod stock 
and that of China. 

Modern research finds no place for the Turanians 
or the Malayo-Polynesians among the names of the 
descendants of the sons of Noah. 1 If they are to be 
included in the range of the tenth chapter of Genesis, 
it must be without the light of race names. The 
Scripture record is silent. To the inspired writers 
"they are the nations that sat in darkness ,, and "the 
uttermost parts of the earth." The links of connexion 
are lost, and they have created no ancient literature 
that might have served as a guide. 

The linguistic proof, however, remains to show that 
they are of the common human stock. The Turanians 
are most nearly connected with the Japhetic languages, 
as the Himalaic and Malayo-Polynesian are with the 
Semitic. 

Thus we seem to have the Japhetic influence in the 
northern half of Eastern Asia, as that of Shem and 
Ham in the southern half. In the Pacific Ocean, Japan 

1 The word Mongol may be compared with Magog, and Togarmah with 
the Turks and Tungus. The race name of the Japanese is Wo, which, 
as not having a consonant in it, is most nearly like Javan. 



390 



represents Japheth, and the Polynesian Archipelago, 
with Australasia, combine to spread Semite principles 
of language. 

On the American continent, Turanian and Polynesian 
linguistic principles meet in the various Indian lan- 
guages. New combinations are formed. But the 
peculiarities of the languages have not been found 
sufficiently distinctive to form a thoroughly satisfactory 
division into families. Yet it has been generally 
agreed to classify them as northern, central, and 
southern. 

The characteristics of the six families of languages 
reviewed in the preceding chapters are, in the Chinese 
order, in the Semitic life, in the Himalaic quietness, 
in the Turanian extension, in the Malayo-Polynesian 
softness, and in the Indo-European elevation. 

The love of order shown by the Chinese in their 
political and social sphere is found also in their lan- 
guage. The musical effect of the tones on the ear is 
parallel to the rigid laws of arrangement in their 
syntax. Antiquity prevails over novelty, and mono- 
syllabism has retained its empire among them, through 
a conservative principle, which has thus, happily for 
science, secured to us a copy more like the original 
mother of languages than can be found in any other 
land. The accuracy of the Chinese picture of that 
lost tongue, which it is the highest duty of philology 
to restore, is in proportion to the restraining force 



CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILIES. 391 

which among the Chinese has always hindered develop- 
ment. That restraint has been caused partly by 
a feeling of art, which pleased itself with simple 
triumphs and the retention of the antique ; and partly 
from want of the poetic impulse, which in more 
western regions has had so powerful an influence on 
the advance of language. 

The principle of life characterizes remarkably the 
Semitic languages. The Koran and the Bible are 
replete with poetic expression. The people among 
whom these books originated were accustomed to look 
on the world with the poet's eye. This impulse was 
imparted to them by their possession of early revela- 
tion ; and its effect was to modify, first, their language, 
and afterwards their literature, by rapid transitions, 
personifications, and the breaking up of natural order, 
so as to place them in complete contrast to the linguistic 
and literary development of Eastern Asia. The poetic 
spirit of the Semites probably originated the Indo- 
European mythology, as it did the more imaginative 
part of the Indo-European languages. Where the 
distinctions of gender are found in nouns, there will 
also be found male and female divinities with names 
and genealogies. The same feeling for personification, 
perhaps, has impressed on the Hamitic languages and 
systems of thought whatever features they possess of a 
kindred kind. The Hamites were a materialistic race, 
working patiently at trades and land cultivation. They 



392 



were farmers and artificers, and they appear to have 
originated writing. With such tastes they would not 
create the mythology which prevailed in Babylon and 
Egypt. Semite influence may be pointed to as a more 
likely source of their religious ideas, as it would be 
also of much of their grammar. 

The Himalaic peoples from Tibet to Cochin- China 
are characterized in their language, and in their 
history, by nothing so much as quietness. They have 
founded no institutions, originated no arts. They 
have received without giving. Their religion came 
from India and is Indo-European. Their arts were 
borrowed from China. The Tibetians have taken some 
elements in their language from the Semites, others 
from the Turanians, and others, again, from the 
Chinese. The Himalaic race are more thoroughly 
Buddhist than any other linguistic family. A contem- 
plative religion, opposed to activity, pleased them 
because it agreed with their natural disposition. Its 
effect on them has been to confirm them in their quiet 
ways of thinking. They can never produce any im- 
press on history till they abandon this inactive and 
gentle religion. 

The Turanian race has played in the world a much 
more important part than those who reside east and 
north of the Himalayan Mountains. In the fifth 
century, the Huns under Attila were named " The 
scourge of God " ; and in the thirteenth century, the 



CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILIES. 393 

Mongols were the conquerors of all Asia and the dread 
of all Europe. Occupying Siberia, North Europe, 
Japan, Tartary, and South India, they won for them- 
selves a good title to the name of Japheth " the extender! 1 
In harmony with this name are the characteristics of 
their language. They founded the polysyllable and 
the most widely used system in the world of cases, 
tenses, and moods. They thus added immensely to the 
progress of language, by the simple process of ap- 
pending syllables to roots by agglutination. The 
language- forming faculty then applied itself to the crys- 
tallization of these polysyllabic forms into the grammat- 
ical paradigms which belong to the several languages 
respectively of the Turanian and Indo-European stocks. 

The characteristic of the Malayo-Polynesian lan- 
guages is softness. The primitive monosyllable became 
a dissyllable by the enervating effect of climate. The 
initial consonant formed the first syllable and the final 
the second. Agglutination proceeded on the same 
principle to work out the Oceanic polysyllable. Every- 
thing favoured an easy pronunciation adapted to a race 
accustomed to lassitude and contented to deteriorate. 
A people having a very soft language can never elevate 
themselves unless under new conditions, such as the 
introduction of Christianity. 

The last of the series, the Indo-European, is remark- 
able for elevation. This system is built on those that 
went before, and in many respects combines and per- 



394 



CHINA S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY. 



fects their peculiar excellences. The topmost branches 
of the tree of language, those that spread widest and 
aspire highest, are the Indo-European. It is this race 
that has led the mind of the world in science and 
philosophy, and its language constitutes the most fitting 
vehicle for the transmission of scientific and philosophic 
thought. The monosyllabic languages are the lower 
branches, thick and of great length, but with no bend 
upwards. The dissyllabic modes of human speech are 
higher and are turned heavenwards. The earlier poly- 
syllabic languages have a vast extension, but not much 
upward curvature. The chief beauty of the tree is in 
its higher foliage. Here are seen the greatest variety 
of picturesque effects, the most vigorous growth, the 
most elegant forms, the most imposing altitude. All 
the branches, however, upper or lower, proceed from 
one trunk. 

" God hath made of one blood all nations of men for 
to dwell on all the face of the earth." When the 
European goes into the other continents of the world, 
as traveller, colonist, missionary, and civilizer, he meets 
everywhere with men of the same race. " But what 
have we in common with the Turanians, with Chinese, 
and Samoyedes ? Yery little it may seem : and yet it 
is not very little, for it is our common humanity. It is 
not the yellow skin, or the high cheek-bones, that 
make the man. Nay, if we look but steadily into those 
black Chinese eyes, we shall find that there, too, there 



LANGUAGE SHOWS THE RACES TO BE ONE. 395 

is a soul that responds to a soul, and that the God 
whom they mean is the same God whom we mean, 
however helpless their utterance, however imperfect 
their worship." 1 Language proves them to be one 
with ourselves. The black, the yellow, the copper- 
coloured, and the brown races come of one stock. If 
the yellow and the white can by linguistic proofs be 
shown to be one, the presumption will be strong that 
the same is true of all. The evidence is more accessible 
in the case of the yellow race than of the rest, because 
they have an ancient literature and a writing by means 
of ideographic signs, of which the phonetic values are 
known. With the less civilized races we have not this 
advantage. Their languages are perpetually changing, 
and we cannot recover their ancient forms. But if the 
differences between a white and a yellow skin, an 
upright and a receding forehead, a Caucasian and a 
Mongolian head, a large blue eye, set deep, and a small 
black eye, set on the surface, are not conclusive against 
consanguinity, so neither must it be allowed that a 
black or red skin, proves descent from a different Adam. 
If Adam were the progenitor of Caucasians only, as 
held by M'Causland, 2 we should not find European 
roots existing in abundance in the Chinese vocabulary. 

1 Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Religion. 

2 Adam and the Adamites, 1864. Dr. M'Causland has felt strongly the 
force of the stone hatchet argument. But the right way to proceed is 
rather to make mutual concessions in chronology. 



396 china's place in philology. 

Nor should we meet the old type of the Aryan pro- 
nouns and the Aryan system of accidence in Turanian 
languages still spoken in Tartary and Siberia. 

If the Polynesians were not of Asiatic origin, we 
should not find proofs of their syllabic system being 
based upon an old Asiatic syllabary and their laws of 
syntax all formed on Asiatic models. Man cannot 
retain his civilization and morality when isolated — he 
will cease to practise old arts, he will forget facts once 
familiar to him, his religious ideas will become dim, 
his range of thought will in each successive century 
grow more limited, and he will fall into habits which 
are immoral and debasing. That the Polynesians are 
now inferior to the Japanese and Chinese is the effect 
of their distant wanderings, and is an argument for the 
propriety of offering to them early the blessings of 
religious and moral teaching, with instruction in the 
arts of civilized man. 

The religion of the Polynesians is more like that of 
the Brahmans than of the Buddhists, and there were 
probably communicated to them, in early times, from 
India, some features of the Hindoo faith. Who can 
Tiki be but Sakra ? What can be the paradise of 
Tiki, as believed in by the Samoans, but the thirty- 
third heaven of Sakra ? At any rate s is changed 
into t quite commonly in the cognate languages spoken 
on the Birman peninsula. Yet the Samoan belief in a 
Supreme God, called Tangoloa reminds us strongly of 



RESUME. 397 

the Mongol and Turkish faith in Tengri, and that of the 
Chinese in Tien. The addition of the two consonants 
g, r, is Turanian, and it was apparently from the 
Turanians, therefore, that faith in the Supreme Being 
under this name was derived. The worship of an- 
cestors, common in the South Seas, would be learned 
from the Chinese ; while the human sacrifices, which 
also existed among them to a frightful extent, 1 must be 
viewed as Turanian, — for in some parts of India the 
aborigines are, under British eyes, only beginning to 
allow this practice to fall into desuetude, — or they are 
Semitic, and are of the same origin as the sacrifices to 
Moloch condemned in the Old Testament. 

Let the reader now recall the successive steps of this 
investigation from the commencement. The old insti- 
tutions of China were shown to be like those of the 
renowned cities of ancient Mesopotamia. It was stated 
that the remarkable similarity in arts, usages, and 
ideas, existing among the races that lived near the 
Yellow Eiver, the Euphrates, and the Nile, indicated 
that they sprang from a common source. 

After briefly glancing at the geographical areas of 
the families of languages spoken in Asia, a sketch was 
drawn of their most general features, as constituting a 
rough picture of the world's primeval language. The 
roots are recoverable in a monosyllabic form. They 
were chiefly imitations of natural sounds, and were 
1 Williams's Missionary Enterprizes. 



398 



increased by the aid of the principle of the association 
of ideas. Special divine aid was afforded to primeval 
man in the task of forming for himself a language. 

In the chapter on the Chinese language, after it had 
been shown that the conditions of the situation would 
be best suited by supposing the Chinese to have left 
Western Asia about 5,000 years ago, and yet subse- 
quently to the Deluge of Noah, the mode of recoveriDg 
the primeval Chinese syllabary from the phonetic 
element of the characters was described. The syntax, 
so accordant with nature and innocent of inversions, 
was seen to be of the most primeval type. 

The next step in the progress of language was taken 
in the formation of the Semitic language. The people 
who used Semite speech added a consonant to the root, 
introduced prefixes to mark conjugations and moods, 
invented a plural and dual number, originated genders 
among nouns not properly masculine or feminine, and 
revolutionized the syntax. 

In speaking of the languages used in the region 
south of China, it was seen that while their tones, 
their syllabaries, and their vocabulary, connect them 
closely with China, their syntax links them remarkably 
with the Semitic type. While this is the case with the 
Siamese, the Cochin- Chinese, and the Miau aborigines 
in China itself, some still more striking Semitic charac- 
teristics belong to the Tibetan language. Though its 
tones, roots, and radical syllabary show it to be akin to 



RESUME. 399 

the Chinese, and its syntax and case suffixes prove its 
relationship to the Turanian type, its mode of conju- 
gating verbs and its consonantal prefixes are Semite, 
and seem to point for their origin to a time earlier than 
the Aryan occupation of India and Persia, which drove 
J;he Semites and Turanians from their neighbourhood 
on the west and south. 

The Japanese received special attention as the oldest 
of the polysyllabic languages in Asia, and it was shown 
how case particles grew into existence by agglutination, 
the syllables made use of for this purpose being words 
existing as separate roots in Chinese and other lan- 
guages. 

The second division of the polysyllabic Turanian 
system was described as the Dravidian. The growth 
of the verb by agglutination was here traced, and a 
growing resemblance in vocabulary and grammar to the 
western type found to be perceptible. 

The greatest likeness and nearest kinship between 
the Indo-European languages and the threefold Tu- 
ranian type was proved to exist in the Tartar, of which 
Mongol was taken as the best representative. Here it 
was shown that the pronouns and substantive verbs, 
declension of nouns, and verb conjugation of western 
speech, rest chiefly upon the Tartar branch of the 
Turanian family as their source and foundation. 

The Malays and Polynesians have a syllabary and 
vocabulary which was evidently once continental. The 



400 china's place in philology. 

Malay and Siamese are specially connected with each 
other, while Chinese influence in the principles pre- 
vailing in the Polynesian languages is very perceptible. 
These islanders retain traces of a lost civilization, which 
conies more prominently to view on the American 
continent. Language and religious beliefs alike point 
to Southern Asia as the source from which came 
the tribes that inhabit Australia, Polynesia, and the 
civilized portion of the American tribes. 

The sudden expansion of language observable in 
Sanscrit, as compared with the preceding systems, 
indicates the commencement of a new era of develop- 
ment, characterized by unparalleled richness of forms. 
This new advance proceeds on principles already 
existing in older systems. In introducing gender in 
nouns, and sex in mythology, Semitic example was 
followed. So, also, the prefix of sibilants in the root 
and the insertion of r and I after the initial of the 
primeval syllable seem to have come from the same 
source. But in all the newer portions of the Sanscrit 
grammatical formation we find laws prevailing which 
also characterize Turanian languages. Case suffixes, 
the verb, and the syntax, bear united testimony to this 
statement. But there is a more highly wrought 
appearance in the forms. Agglutination has become 
inflexion. Boot and suffix are fused into a closer 
union. The advance in analytical acuteness, which was 
after a few centuries to culminate in the creation of 



kiM 401 

Hindoo philosophy, is first soon in llio mil. 
divisions of the verb paradigms. The adjective was 
now for the first tune declined like the substantive, and 

the relative pronoun began to cxort some of that j 
which it has more fully assumed in the Eur< | 
languages. 

AYhen the speech of ancient and modern Europe was 
brought under our review, it was found, as in [ 
that the principles of older languages v king 

underneath the surface. Bui they appeared in 
combinations suited to the mental conditions of the 
successive races who have in that favoured i 
wrought out such a marvellous history in the poll 
social, and in I sphere. Greet 

in the vicinity of the ancient empires, was abl< 
derive from them tl. idly 

nurturing these, she was seen to develope wit) 

hing rapidity those creations in po< 
history, and philosophy, which the world will 1 
to admire. A language and literature 

tii'ul and complete as the Great could ne\ 
originated but from the happy com bin ation of fruitful 
principles, derived from the pre-existing s of 

Language and thought. The Latin, the T 

the Sclavonic forms of langine 

special elements, contributed in varied proportion B 

the same sour* 

In all these lai early ol 



402 



later ones, and new phenomena exemplify over again 
what took place long ago. When we say, " Alfred 
the Great," we use a French idiom, dating from the 
Norman Conquest ; and among our Saxon idioms, old 
and new, forming the major part of the language, 
Turanian modes of expression may be pointed out, 
which at some distant time, when our ancestors lived 
near the Caspian, found their way into colloquial use in 
some similar manner. For the English, " and came 
before him," the Anglo-Saxon G-ospels have, in Mark vi. 
33, " and him beforan comon." These words are 
exactly in the order of Manchu and Mongol syntax. 

How great are the linguistic accessions to European 
speech received from far Asia has been shown by exam- 
ples of common words. They are enough to make plain 
that the vocabularies of the east and west are essentially 
the same. This identity dates from a time previous to 
the settlement of the Chinese in China and the Mongols 
in Mongolia. Philology may here safely take her 
stand, and add a chapter of illustration to the sacred 
record, where it treats of the division of the earth and 
the planting of nations. 

It is the duty, as it is the destiny, of the nations of 
Europe to give back to the east the treasure of heavenly 
lio-ht which they once received from it. To Asia they 
owe the first impulses to thought, the earliest lessons 
in the arts, the invention of writing, and the price- 
less deposit of divine revelation. "Freely ye have 



Dl TV OP THE WEST TO ENLIGHTEN THE 1ABT. 409 

received," says the Saviour, " freely giye.' 1 'J 

higher menial elevation and their richer sto* 
knowledge fit them to be the instructors of the old 
world; and to this undertaking Divine Providence is 
leading them by unmistakable signs. England has 
received the rule of India for this purpose, that she 
may become the teacher and evangelizer of India. 
Commerce and war have opened the gates of China, 
that Christian truth may enter them. All new i 
therefore, should be welcome that tend to show that 
the Chinese are one with us in origin, and that their 
history, their institutions, their language even, deriye 
their source, as ours do, from Western Asia. Let the 
kindly sympathy of the west for the east be the more 
called forth as the proofs of common brotherhood are 
accumulated. 



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in 1598 ; by Francis Thxnne. Edited from the unique MS. in the 
Bridgewater Library. By G. H. Kingsley, Esq., M.D. 4s. 

10. Merlin, or the Early History of King Arthur. Edited for the 

first time from the unique MS. in the Cambridge University Library (about 
1450 a.d.), by Henry B. Wheatley, Esq. Part I. 2s. 6d. 

11. The Monarche, and other Poems of Sir David Lyndesay. Edited 

from the first edition by Johnf Skott, in 1552, by Fitzedward Hall, 
Esq., D.C.L. Part I. 3s. 

12. The "Wright's Chaste "Wife, a Merry Tale, by Adam of Cobsam 

(about 1462 a.d.), from the unique Lambeth MS. 306. Edited for the first 
time by F. J. Furnivall, Esq., M.A. Is. 

13. Seinte Marheeete, J?e Melden ant Martyr. Three Texts of ab. 

1200, 1310, 1330 a.d. First edited in 1862, by the Rev. Oswald Cockayne, 
M.A., and now re-issued. 2s. 

14. Kyng Horn, with, fragments of Floriz and Blaunchenur, and the 

Assumption of the Blessed Virgin. Edited from the MSS. in the Library of 
the University of Cambridge and the British Museum, by the Rev. J. Rawson 
Lumby. 3s. 6d. 

15. Political, Religious, and Love Poems, from the Lambeth MS. 

No. 306, and other sources. Edited by F.J. Furnivall, Esq., M.A. 7s. f 6d' 

16. A Tretice in English breuely drawe out of \ book of Quintis 

essencijs in Latyn, \> Hermys )> prophete and king of Egipt after J? flood 
of Noe, fader of Philosophris, hadde by reuelacioun of an aungil of God to him 
sente. Edited from the Sloane MS. 73, by F. J. Furnivall, Esq., M.A. Is. 

17. Parallel Extracts from 29 Manuscripts of Piers Plowman, with 

Comments, and a Proposal for the Society's Three-text edition of this Poem. 
By the Rev. W. Skeat, M.A. Is. 

18. Hali Meidenhead, about 1200 a.d. Edited for the first time from 

the MS. (with a translation) by the Rev. Oswald Cockayne, M.A. Is. 



8 and 60, Paternoster .Roto, London. 1 1 

Early English Text Society's Publications— continued. 

19. The Monarche, and other Poems of Sir David Lyndesay. Part II., 

the Complaynt of the King's Papingo, and other minor Poems. Edited from 
the First Edition by F. Hall, Esq., D.C.L. 3*. 6d. 

20. Some Treatises by Richard Rolle de Hampole. Edited from 

Robert of Thornton's MS. (ab.1440 A.D.),byRev. George G. Perry, M. A. 1$. 

21. Merlin, or the Early History of King Arthur. Part II. Edited 

by Henry B. Wheatley, Esq. 4s. 

22. The Romans of Partenay, or Lusignen. Edited for the first time 

from the unique MS. in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, by the 
Rev. W. W. Skeat. M.A. 6s. 

23. Dan Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt, or Remorse of Conscience, in 

the Kentish dialect, 1340 a.d. Edited from the unique MS. in the British 
Museum, by Richard Morris, Esq. 10*. 6d. 

24. Hymns of the Virgin and Christ ; The Parliament of Devils, 

and Other Religious Poems. Edited from the Lambeth MS. 853, by F. J. 
Furnivall, M.A. 3*. 

25. The Stacions of Rome, and the Pilgrim's Sea- Voyage and Sea- 

Sickness, with Clene Maydenhod. Edited from the Vernon and Porkington 
MSS., etc., by F. J. Furnivall, Esq., M.A. Is. 

26. Religious Pieces in Prose and Verse. Containing Dan Jon 

Gaytrigg's Sermon ; The Abbaye of S. Spirit ; Sayne Jon, and other pieces 
in the Northern Dialect. Edited from Robert of Thorntone's MS. (ab. 14G0 
a.d.), by the Rev. G. Perry, M.A. 2*. 

27. Maniptjltjs Vocabtjlortjm : a Rhyming Dictionary of the English 

Language, by Peter Levins (1570). Edited, with an Alphabetical Index, 
by Henry B. Wheatley. 12s. 

28. The Vision of William concerning Piers Plowman, together with 

Vita de Dowel, Dobet et Dobest. 1362 a.d., by William Langland. The 
earliest or Vernon Text ; Text A. Edited from the Vernon MS., with full 
Collations, by Rev. W. W. Skeat, M.A. 7*. 

29. Old English Homilies and Homiletic Treatises. (Sawles Warde 

and the Wohunge of Ure Lauerd : Ureisuns of Ure Louerd and of Ure Lefdi, 
etc.) of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Edited from MSS. in the Brit- 
ish Museum, Lambeth, and Bodleian Libraries ; with Introduction, Transla- 
tion, and Notes. By Richard Morris. First Series. Part I. 7s. 

30. Piers, the Ploughman's Crede (about 1394). Edited from the 

MSS. by the Rev. W. W. Skeat, M.A. 2*. 

31. Instructions for Parish Priests. By John Myrc. Edited from 

Cotton MS. Claudius A. II., by Edward Peacock, Esq., F.S.A., etc., etc. h. 

32. The Babees Book, Aristotle's ABC, Urbanitatis, Stans Puer ad 

Mensam, The Lytille Childrenes Lytil Boke. The Bokes of Nurture of 
Hugh Rhodes and John Russell, Wynk) n de Worde's Boke of Kervynge, The 
Booke of Demeanor, The Boke of Curtasye, Seager's Schoole of Vertue. etc., 
etc. With some French and Latin Poems on like subjects, and some Fore- 
words on Education in Early England. Edited by F. J. Furnivall, MA., 
Trin. Hall, Cambridge 15s. 

33. The Book of the Knight de la Tofr Laitdhy, 1372. A Fall 

Book for his Daughters, Edited from the Harleian MS. 17u'l, by Thomas 
Wright, Esq., M. A., and Mr. William Rosmtkr. 8a. 

34. Old English Homilies and Homilk lie Tit i:\ri -is. (Sawles Warde, 

and the Wohunge of Ure Lauerd: Ureisuns of Ure Louerd and of Ure Lefdi, 
etc.) of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Edited from MSS. in the 
British Museum, Lambeth, and Bodleian Libraries; with Introduction, Trans- 
lation, and Notes, by Richard Morris. First Strw. Part 2. 



12 Linguistic Publications of Triibner $* Co. 

Early English English Text Society's Publications— continued. 

35. Sib David Lyndesay' s Woeks. Paet 3. The Historie of ane 

Nobil and Wailzeand Sqvyer, William Meldrum, umqvhyle Laird of 
Cleische and Bynnis, compylit be Sir Dauld Lyxdesay of the Mont alias 
Lyoun King of Armes. With the Testament of the said Williame Mel- 
drum, Squyer, compylit alswa he Sir Dauid Lyndesay, etc. Edited by F. 
Hall, D.C.L. 2s. 

36. Meelin, oe the Eaely Histoey of King Aethtje. A Prose 

Romance (about 1450-1460 a.d.), edited from the unique MS. in the 
University Library, Cambridge, by Henry B. Wheatley. With an Essay 
on Arthurian Localities, by J. S. Stuart Glexxie, Esq. Part III. 1869. 12s. 
:37. Sle David Lyndesay' s Woeks. Part TV. Ane Satyre of the 
thrie estaits, in commendation of vertew and vitvperation of vyce. Maid 
be Sir David Linjjesay, of the Mont, alias Lyon King of Armes. At 
Edinbvrgh. Printed be Eobert Charteris, 1602. Cvm privilegio regis. 
Edited by F. Hall, Esq., D.C.L. 4*. 

38. The Yision of William conceening Piees the Plowman, 

together with Vita de Dowel, Dobet, et Dobest, Secundum Wit et Resoun, 
by William Langlaxd (1377 a.d.). The " Crowley" Text; or Text B. 
Edited from MS. Laud Misc. 581, collated with MS. Rawl. Poet. 38, MS. 
B. 15. 17. in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, MS. Dd. 1. 17. in 
the Cambridge University Library, the MS. in Oriel College, Oxford, MS. 
Bodley 814, etc. By the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M.A., late Fellow of 
Christ's College, Cambridge. 10s. 6d. 

39. The "(test Hystoeiale" of the Destetjction of Teoy. An 

Alliterative Romance, translated from Guido De Colonna's " Hystoria 
Troiana." Now first edited from the unique MS. in the Hunterian Museum, 
University of Glasgow, by the Rev. Geo. A. Paxtox and David Doxaldsox. 
Part I. 10s. 6d. 

40. English Gilds. The Original Ordinances of more than One 

Hundred Early English Gilds : Together with the olde usages of the cite of 
Wynchestre ; The Ordinances of Worcester ; The Office of the Mayor of 
Bristol ; and the Customary of the Manor of Tettenhall- Regis. From 
Original MSS. of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Edited with 
Notes by the late Toulmix Smith, Esq., F.R.S. of Northern Antiquaries 
(Copenhagen). With an Introduction and Glossary, etc., by his daughter, 
Lucy Toulmix Smith. And a Preliminary Essay, in Five Parts, Ox the 
History axd Developmext of Gilds, by Lujo Brextaxo, Doctor Juris 
Utriusque et Philosophise. 21s. 

41. The Minoe Poems of William Latjdee, Playwright, Poet, and 

Minister of the Word of God (mainly on the State of Scotland in and about 
1568 A.D., that year of Famine and Plague). Edited from the Unique 
Originals belonging to S. Christie-Miller, Esq., of Britwell, by F. J. 
Furnivall, M.A., Trin. Hall, Camb. 3s. 

42. Beenaedtjs de Cuea eei Pamvliaeis, with some Early Scotch 

Prophecies, etc. From a MS., KK 1. 5, in the Cambridge University- 
Library. Edited by J. Rawsox Lumby, M.A., late Fellow of Magdalen 
College, Cambridge. 2s. 

43. Ratis Baying, and other Moral and Religious Pieces, in Prose and 

Verse. Edited from the Cambridge University Library MS. KK 1. 5, by J. 
Rawsox Lumby, M.A., late Fellow of Magdalen College, Cambridge. 3s. 

44. Joseph of Aeimathie : otherwise called the Romance of the 

Seint Graal, or Holy Grail: an alliterative poem, written about a.d. 1350, 
and now first printed from the unique copy in the Vernon MS. at Oxford. 
With an appendix, containing "The Lyfe of Joseph of Armathy," reprinted 
from the black-letter copy of Wynkyn de Worde ; " De sancto Joseph ab 
Arimathia," first printed by Pynson, a.d. 1516 ; and " The Lyfe of Joseph of 
Arimathia," first printed by Pynson, a.d. 1520. Edited, with Notes and 
Glossarial Indices, by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M.A. 5s. 



8 and 60, Paternoster Row, London. 13 

Early English Text Society's Publications— continued. 

45. King Alfred's West- Saxon Version of Geegoey's Pastoral Care. 
With an English translation, the Latin Text, Notes, and an Introduction 
Edited by Henry Sweet, Esq., of Balliol College, Oxford. Part I. lO.v. 

Extra Series. Subscriptions — 'Small paper, one guinea ; large paper, 
two guineas, per annum. 

1. The Eomance of William: of Paleene (otherwise known as the 
Romance of William and the Werwolf). Translated from the French at the 
command of Sir Humphrey de Bohun, about a.d. 1350, to which is added a 
fragment of the Alliterative Romance of Alisaunder, translated from the 
Latin by the same author, about a.d. 1340 ; the former re-edited from the 

J3 unique MS. in the Library of King's College, Cambridge, the latter now 
first edited from the unique MS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. By the 
Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M.A. 8vo. sewed, pp. xliv. and 328. £l 6s. 

2 r On Eaely English Peonunctation, with especial reference to 
Shakspere and Chaucer ; containing an investigation of the Correspondence 
of Writing with Speech in England, from the Anglo-Saxon period to the 
present day, preceded by a systematic Notation of all Spoken Sounds by 
means of the ordinary Printing Types ; including a re-arrangement of Prof. 
F. J. Child's Memoirs on the Language of Chaucer and Gower, and reprints 
of the rare Tracts by Salesbury on English, 1547, and Welsh, 1567, and by 
Barcley on French, 1521. By Alexander J. Ellis, F.R.S. Part I. On 
the Pronunciation of the xivth, xvith, xvnth, andxvuith centuries. 8vo. 
sewed, pp. viii. and 416. 10*. 

3. Caxton's Book of Cuetesye, printed at Westminster about 1477-8, 

A.d., and now reprinted, with two MS. copies of the same treatise, from the 
Oriel MS. 79, and the Balliol MS. 354. Edited by Frederick J. Furni- 
vall, M.A. 8vo. sewed, pp. xii. and 58. 5s. 

4. The Lay of Havelok the Dane; composed in the reign of 

Edward I., about a.d. 1280. Formerly edited by Sir F. Madden for the 
Roxburghe Club, and now re-edited from the unique MS. Laud Misc. 108, in 
the Bodleian Library, Oxford, by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M.A. 8vo. 
sewed, pp. lv. and 160. 10s. 

5. Chatjcee's Teanslation of Boethitjs's " De Consolatione 
Philosophie." Edited from the Additional MS. 10,340 in the British 
Museum. Collated with the Cambridge Univ. Libr. MS. Ii. 3. 21. By 
Richard Morris. 8vo. 12s. 

6. The Eomance of the Cheveleee Assigne. Ee-edited from the 
unique manuscript in the British Museum, with a Preface, Notes, and 
Glossarial Index, by Henry H. Gibbs, Esq., M.A. 8vo. sewed, pp. 
xviii. and 38. 3s. 

7. On Eaely English Peonunciation, with especial reference to 
Shakspere and Chaucer. By Alexander J. Ellis, F.R.S. , etc., etc. 
Part II. On the Pronunciation of the xm th and previous centuries, of 
Anglo-Saxon, Icelandic, Old Norse and Gothic, with Chronological Tables of 
the Value of Letters and Expression of Sounds in English Writing. 10s. 

8. Qtjeene Elizabethes Achademy, by Sir Humpiikf.y Gilui 

A Booke of Precedence, The Ordering of a Funerall, etc. Varying Versions 
of the Good Wife, The Wise Man, etc., Maxims, Lydgate's Order of Fools, 
A Poem on Heraldry, Occleve on Lords' Men, etc., Edited by F. J. 
Furnivall, M.A., Trin. Hall, Camb. With Essays on Early Italian ami 
German Books of Courtesy, by W. M. Rossetti, Esq., and E. Osw.vid, 
Esq. 8vo. 13s. 



14 Lingidstic Publications of Trubner ^ Co. 

Early English Text Society's Publications— continued. 

9. The Fraternttye op Yacarondes, by John Awdelet (licensed 
in 1560-1, imprinted then, and in 1565), from the edition of 1575 in the 
Bodleian Library. A Caueat or Warening for Commen Cursetors vulgarely 
called Vagabones, by Thomas Harman, Esq,uiere. From the 3rd edition of 
1567, belonging to Henry Huth, Esq., collated with the 2nd edition of 1567, 
in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and with the reprint of the 4th edition of 
1573. A Sermon in Praise of Thieves and Thievery, by Parson Haben or 
Hyberdyne, from the Lansdowne MS. 98, and Cotton Vesp. A. 25. Those 
parts of the Groundworke of Conny-catching (ed. 1592), that differ from 
Harman' s Caueat. Edited by Edward Viles & F. J. Furnivall. 8vo. 
Is. 6d. 

10. The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction" of Knowledge, made by 

Andrew Borde, of Physycke Doctor. A Compendyous Regyment of a 
Dyetary of Helth made in Mountpyllier, compiled by Andrewe Boorde, 
of Physycke Doctor. Barnes in the Defence of the Berde : a treatyse 
made, answerynge the treatyse of Doctor Borde upon Berdes. Edited, with 
a life of Andrew Boorde, and large extracts from his Breuyary, by F. J. 
Furnivall, M. A., Trinity Hall, Camb. 8vo. 18s. 

11. The Bruce ; or, the Book of the most excellent and noble Prince, 

Robert de Broyss, King of Scots : compiled by Master John Barbour, Arch- 
deacon of Aberdeen, a.d. 1375. Edited from MS. G 23 in the Library of St. 
John's College, Cambridge, written a.d. 1487 ; collated with the MS. in the 
Advocates' Library at Edinburgh, written a.d. 1489, and with Hart's 
Edition, printed a.d. 1616 ; with a Preface, Notes, and Glossarial Index, by 
the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M.A. Part I. 8vo. 12s. 

12. England in the Reign of King Henry the Eighth. A 

Dialogue between Cardinal Pole and Thomas Lupset, Lecturer in Rhetoric 
at Oxford. By Thomas Starkey, Chaplain to the King. Edited, with 
Preface, Notes, and Glossary, by J. M. Cowper. And with an Introduction 
containing the Life and Letters of Thomas Starkey, by the Rev. J. S. Brewer, 
M.A. Part II. 12*. 

(Fart I., Starkey' s Life and Letters, is in preparation. 

13. A Supplicacyon for the Beggars. Written about the year 1529, 

by Simon Fish. Now re-edited by Frederick J. Furnivall. With a 
Supplycacion to our moste Soueraigne Lorde Kynge Henry the Eyght 
(1544 a.d.), A Supplication of the Poore Commons (1546 a.d.), The Decaye 
of England by the great multitude of Shepe (1550-3 a.d.). Edited by J. 
Meadows Cow per. %s. 
Edda Saemundar Hinns Froda — The Edda of Saemund the Learned. 

From the Old Norse or Icelandic. Part I. with a Mythological Index. 12mo. pp. 
152, cloth, 3s. 6d. Part II. with Index of Persons and Places. By Benjamin 
Thorpe. 12mo. pp. viii. and 172, cloth. 1866. 4s. ; or in 1 Vol. complete, 7s. 6d. 

Edkins. — China's Place in Philology. An attempt to show that the 
Languages of Europe and Asia have a common origin. By the Rev. Joseph 
Edkins. Crown 8vo , pp. xxiii. — 403, cloth. 

Edkins. — A Vocabulary of the Shanghai Dialect. By J. Edelns. 
8vo. half-calf, pp. vi. and 151. Shanghai, 1869. 21s. 

Edkins. — A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as exhibited in the 
Shanghai Dialect. By J. Edkins, B.A. Second edition, corrected. 8vo. 
half-calf, pp. viii. and 225. Shanghai, 1868. 21*. 

Edkins. — A. Grammar of the Chinese Colloquial Language, com- 
monly called the Mandarin Dialect By Joseph Edkins. Second edition. 
8vo. half-calf, pp. viii. and 279. Shanghai, 1864. £1 10s. 

Eger and Grime ; an Early English Romance. Edited from Bishop 
Percy's Folio Manuscript, about 1650 a.d. By John W. Hales, M.A., 
Fellow and late Assistant Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Frederick 
J. Furnivall, M.A., of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 1 vol. 4to. (only 100 copies 
printed), bound in the Eoxburghe style, pp. 61. Price 10s. 6d. 



8 and 60, Paternoster Row, London. ] 

Eitel. — Handbooi fob tbm Bnmm oj Chimh Buddhmi 

Rev. E.J. lii hi., of the London Missionary Society. Crown Hvo. pp. \iii., 224, 
cloth, 18*. 
Eitel. — Tiikke Lectures on Buddhism. By the Bar, K J, Kmi.. 

(Jn I 

Elliot. — Thi Histoey of India, as told by Its own Historiam. 

Muhammadan Period. Edited from the Posthumous Papers of the lata Sir II. 
M. ELLIOT, ELC.B., East India Company's Bengal Civil E 
John DOWBON, M.E.A.8., Staff College, Sandhurst. Vols. I. and II. With a 
Portrait of Sir H. M. Elliot. 8vo.pp xxxii. and 542, x. and 580, cloili. L8 
Vol. III. 8vo. pp. xii. and 627, cloth. 2 h. 
Elliot. — Memoirs on the History, Folk-Lore, and DlftTBlBUTlO] 

the Races of the North Western Provinces of India; being an 
amplified Edition of the original Supplementary Glossary of Indian Terms. 
By the late Sir Henry M. Elliot, K.C.B., of the Hon. East India Company's 
Bengal Civil Service. Edited, revised, and re-arranged, by John Bl 
M.H.A.S., Bengal Civil Service; Member of the German Oriental Society, of 
the Asiatic Societies of Paris and Bengal, and of the Philological Boo 
London. In 2 vols, demy 8vo., pp. xx., 370, and 39G, cloth. With two 
Lithographic Plates, one full-page coloured Map, and three large coloured 
folding Maps. 36s. 

Ellis. — The Asiatic Affinities of the Old Italians. By Bobebx 
Ellis, B.D., Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and author of " Ancient 
Routes between Italy and Gaul." Crown 8vo. pp. iv. 156, cloth. 1870. 5*. 

English and Welsh Languages. — The Influence of thi Bioiibb am» 

Welsh Languages upon each other, exhibited in the Vocabularies of the two 
Tongues. Intended to suggest the importance to Philologers, Antiquaries, 
Ethnographers, and others, of giving due attention to the Celtic Branch of the 
Indo-Germanic Family of Languages. Square, pp. 30, sewed. 1869. 1 1. 
Etherington. — The Student's Grammar of tin; Enrol L 
By the Rev. W. Etherington, Missionary, Benares. Crown 8vo. pp. \ 
xlviii. cloth. 1870. 10s. 6d. 

Ethnological Society of London (The Journal of the). Edited by 

Professor Huxley, F.R.S., President of the Society ; George I 
F.R.S. ; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F. R. S. ; Colonel A. Lank Pox, Hob 
Thomas Wright, Esq., Hon. Sec; Hyde Clakke, Esq.; Sub-Editor; and 
Assistant Secretary, J. H. Lamprey, Esq. Published Quarterly. 
Vol. L, No. 1. April, 1869. 8vo. pp. 88, sewed. 3s. 

Contents.— Flint Instruments from Oxfordshire tad the Isle of Thanet. (Illustrated.) By 
Colonel A. Lane Fox.— The Westerly Drifting of Nomads. By 11. II. Howorth.— On thi 
Shilling. By Hyde Clarke.— Letter" on a Marble Armlet. By EL W. Edwardl On I I 
Spear from Lough Gur, Limerick. (Illustrated.) By Col. A. Lane Fax.— On Chi:. 
BvW. II. Black.— Proto-ethiiie Condition of Asia Minor, l'.y Hyde Clarke. -On Stone Im- 
plements from the Cape. (Illustrated.) By Sir J. Lubboek. — Cromlechs and Megalitilic 
Structures. By II. M. Westropp.— Remarks on Mr. Westropp's Paper. By Colonel A 
Fox.— Stone Implements from San Jose. By A. Stcffcns.-On Child-bearing in Australia 
New Zealand. By J. Hooker, M.D.— On a" Pseudo-cromlech on Mount Alexaml 
By Acheson. — The Cave Cannibals of South Africa. By I.ayland. — Keviews 
Malay Archipelago (with illustrations); Fryer's Hill Tribes of India (with an illu-.tr 
Reliquiae Aquitaniciv, etc.— .Method of Photographic Measurement of the Human Frame (with 
an illustration). By J. II. Lamprey.— Notes and Queries. 

Vol. I., No. 2. July, 1869. 8vo. pp. 117, sewed. S*. 
Contents.— Ordinary Meeting, March !), isi;*» (held at the Museum of 
Professor Huxley, F.K.S., President, in the Chair. Opening Address of the t»i 
the Characteristics of the population of Central and South India (Illustrate! 
Elliot. — Oo the Races of India as traced in existing Trio B and 

By G. Campbell, Esq.— Remarks by Mr. .lames Pergusson.- Remarks bj Mr. Walter Dendy. 
— Ordinarv Meeting, January 23rd, lSiiit. Professor Huxley, l.K lent, in the 

Chair. On the Lepohas. By Dr. A. Campbell, late superintendent 

historic Arcluvologv of India (Illustrated]. By Colonel Meadow* I 

M.U.I. A., etc.— Appendix I. Extract from description of the Pandoo I 

Babington, Esq. (Head before the Literary Society of Bombay, December 21 

in V olume III. of the Society's Transactions .- Appendix II, Extract from alette: 

now Colonel, A. Doria, dated Camp Katannieh, April 12th. 1858.— On some of I 

Tribes of the North Western frontier of India. By Major Fosbcry, Y.c -On 1 






16 Linguistic Publications of Trubner <f Co. 

type in the Human Race. By Sir William Denison.— Notes and Reviews.— Ethnological Notes 
and Queries. — Notices of Ethnology. 

Vol. I., No. 3. October, 1869. pp. 137, sewed. 3s. 

Contents. — On the Excavation of a large raised Stone Circle or Barrow, near the 
Village of Wurreegaon, one mile from the military station of Kamptee, Central Provinces 
of India (Illustrated). By Major George Godfrey Pearse, Royal Artillery.— Remarks by 
Dr. Hooker on Dr. Campbell's paper.— North-American Ethnology: Address of the Presi- 
dent.— On the Native Races of New Mexico (Illustrated). By Dr. A. W. Bell.— On the 
Arapahoes, Kiowas, and Comanches. By Morton C. Fisher.— The North-American Indians : a 
Sketch of some of the hostile Tribes ; together with a brief account of General Sheridan's 
Campaign of 1868 against the Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapahoe, Kiowa, and Comanche Indians. By 
William Blackmore. — Notes and Reviews : The Ethnological Essays of William Ewart Gladstone. 
Juventus Mundi, the Gods and Men of the Homeric Age. By the Right Hon. William Ewart 
Gladstone. (The Review by Hyde Clarke, Esq.)— Notes and Queries.— Classification Committee. 

Vol. I.. No. 4. January, 1870. pp. 98, sewed. 3s. 

Contents. — On New Zealand and Polynesian Ethnology : On the Social Life of the ancient 
Inhabitants of New Zealand, and on the national character it was likely to form. By Sir 
George Grey, K C.B. — Notes on the Maories of New Zealand and some Melanesians of the 
south-west Pacific. By the Bishop of Wellington.— Observations on the Inhabitants and Anti- 
quities of Easter Island. By J. L. Palmer.— On the westerly drifting of Nomades from the 
fifth to the nineteenth century. Part II. The Seljuks, Ghazdevides, etc. By H. H. Howorth, 
Esq. — Settle Cave Exploration.— Index.— Contents.— Report of the Council.— List of Fellows. 
Vol. II., No. 1. April, 1870. 8vo. sewed, pp. 96. 3s. 

Contents :— On the Proposed Exploration of Stonehenge by a Committee of the British 
Association. By Col. A. Lane Fox. — On the Chinese Race, their Language, Government, Social 
Institutions, and Religion. By C. T. Gardner. Appendix I.: On Chinese Mythological and Legen- 
dary History II. : On Chinese Time.— Discussion.— On the Races and Languages of Dardistan. 
By Dr. G. W. Leitner.— Discussion.— Extract from a Communication by Munphool, Pundit to 
the Political Department, Lndia Office, on the Relations between Gilgit, Chitral, and Kashmir.— 
On Quartzite Implements from the Cape of Good Hope. By Sir G. Grey.— Discussion.— Note 
on a supposed Stone Implement from County Wicklow, Ireland. By F. Atcheson.— Note 
on the Stature of American Indians of the Chipewyan Tribe. By Major-General Lefroy— 
Report on the Present State and Condition of Pre-historic Remains in the Channel Islands. By 
Lieut. S. P. (Oliver.— Appendix: The Opening and Restoration of the Cromlech of Le Couperon. — 
Discussion —Description and Remarks upon an Ancient Calvaria from China, which has been 
supposed to be that of Confucius, By George Busk.— Discussion.— On the Westerly Drifting of 
Nomades, from the oth to the 19th Century. Part III. The Comans and Petchenegs. By H. H. 
Howorth. — Review. — Notes and Queries.— Illustrated. 

Vol. II., No. 2. July, 1870. 8vo. sewed, pp. 95. 3s. 

Contents :— On the Kitai and Kara-Kitai. By Dr. G. Oppert.— Discussion.— Note on the Use 
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covered in New Zealand, and on the Nature of the Deposits in -which they occurred. By Dr. 
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— On the Natives of Naga, in Luzon, Philippine Islands.— By Dr. Jagor.— On the Koords. By 
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—Discussion.— On the Danish Element in the Population of Cleveland, Yorkshire. By the Rev. 
J. C. Atkinson. — Discussion.— Notes and Queries. — Illustrated. 

Facsimiles of Two Papyri found in a Tomb at Thebes. TVith a 

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Goldstiicker. — Panini : His Place in Sanskrit Literature. An Inves- 
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ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 

Afghan (or Pushto). Czechian(or Bohemian). Hebrew (current hand). Polish. 

Amharic. Danish. Hebrew (Judaeo-Ger- Pushto (or Afghan). 

Anglo-Saxon. Demotic. Hungarian. [man).liomaic(ModernUreek) 

Arabic. Estrangelo. Illyrian. Russian. 

Arabic Ligatures. Ethiopic. Irish. Runes. 

Aramaic. Etruscan. Italian (Old). Samaritan. 

Archaic Characters. Georgian. Japanese. Sanscrit. 

Armenian. German. Javanese. Servian. 

Assyrian Cuneiform. Glagolitic. Lettish. Slavonic (Old). 

Bengali. Gothic. Mantshu. Sorbian (or Wendish). 

Bohemian (Czechian). Greek. Median Cuneiform. Swedish. 

Bugis. Greek Ligatures. Modern Greek (Romaic) Syriac 

Burmese. Greek (Archaic). Mongolian. Tamil. 

Canarese (or Carnataca). Gujerati(orGuzzeratte). Numidian Telu&U. 

Chinese. Hieratic. OldSlavonic(orCyrillic). Tibetan. 

Coptic. Hieroglyphics. Palmyrenian. Turkish. 

Croato-Glagolitic. Hebrew. Persian. Mallaehian. 

Cufic. Hebrew (Archaic). Persian Cuneiform. Wendish (or Sorbian). 

Cyrillic (or Old Slavonic). Hebrew (Rabbinical). Phoenician. Zend. 

Grey. — Handbook of African, Australian, and Polynesia* Phi- 
lology, as represented in the Library of His Excellency Sir George Grey, 
K.C.B., Her Majesty's High Commissioner of the Cape Colony. Classed, 
Annotated, and Edited by Sir George Grey and Dr. H. I. Hi.ki.k. 
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Vol. II. Part 2.— Papuan Languages of the Loyalty Islands and New Hebrides, compris- 
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others. 8vo. p. 12. iul. 
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Vol. III. Part 1.— Manuscripts and Incunables. 8vo. pp. viii. and 24. 2s. 
Vol. IV. Part 1.— Early Printed Books. England. 8vo. pp. vi. and 266. 

Grey. — Maobi Mementos: being a Series of Addresses presented by 
the Native People to His Excellency Sir George Grey, K.C.B., F.R.S. With 
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tion of Laments, etc. By Ch. Oliver B. Davis. 8vo. pp. iv. and 228, cloth. 12s. 

Green. — Shakespeare and the Emblem-~Weitebs : an Exposition of 
their Similarities of Thought and Expression. Preceded by a View of the 
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Griffith. — Scenes pbom the Ramayana, Meghadtjta, etc. Translated 

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Contents. — Preface — Ayodhya— Bavan Doomed— The Birth of Bama— The Heir apparent— 

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Love— Farewell?— The Hermit's Son— The Trial of Truth— The Forest— The Bape of Sita— 

Bama's Despair — The Messenger Cloud— Khumbakarna— The Suppliant Dove— True Glory — 

Feed the Poor— The Wise Scholar. 

Griffith. — The Bamayan of Valmiki. Translated into English verse. 
By Ralph T. H. Griffith, M.A., Principal of the Benares College. Vol. I., 
containing Books I. and II. 8vo pp. xxxii. 440, cloth. 1870. 18s. 

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Grout. — The Isiztjltj : a Grammar of the Zulu Language ; accompanied 
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Hang. — Essays on the Sacbed Language, Wbitings, and Religion of 
the Parsees. By Martin Haug, Dr. Phil. Superintendent of Sanskrit 
Studies in the Poona College. 8vo. pp. 278, cloth. [Out of print. 

Haug. — A Lectube on an Obiginal Speech of Zoboasteb (Yasna 45), 
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Bombay, 1865. 2s. 

Haug. — Outline of a Gbammab of the Zend Language. By Mabtin 
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Haug. — The Aitabeya Bbahmanam of the Eig Yeda : containing the 
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and od the Origin, Performance, and Sense of the Rites of the Vedic Religion. 
Edited, Translated, and Explained by Martin Haug, Ph.D., Superintendent of 
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Haug. — An Old Zand-Pahlayi Glossaby. Edited in the Original 
Characters, with a Transliteration in Roman Letters, an English Translation, 
and an Alphabetical Index. By Destur Hoshexgji Jamaspji, High-priest of 
the Parsis in Malwa, India. Revised with Notes and Introduction by Martin 
Haug, Ph.D., late Superintendent of Sanscrit Studies in the Poona College, 
Foreign Member of the Royal Bavarian Academy. Published by order of the 
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Haug. — An Old Pahlayi-Pazand Glossaby. Edited, with an Alpha- 
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Parsis in Malwa, India. Revised and Enlarged, with an Introductory Essay on 
the Pahlavi Language, by Martin Haug, Ph.D. Published by order of the 
Government of Bombay. 8vo. pp. xvi. 152, 268, sewed. 1870. 28s. 



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Hang. — Essay on the Pahlavi Language. By Maetin Haug, Ph. D., 
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pp. 152, sewed. 1870. 3s. 6d. 

Haug. — The Religion of the Zoeoasteians, as contained in their Sacred 
Writings. With a History of the Zend and Pehlevi Literature, and a Grammar 
of the Zend and Pehlevi Languages. By Martin Haug, Ph.D., late Superin- 
tendent of Sanscrit Studies in the Poona College. 2 vols. 8vo. [In preparation. 

Heaviside. — American Antiquities ; or, the New World the Old, and 
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History of the Sect of Maharajahs ; or, Yallabhachaeyas in Westeen 

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Historia y fundacion de la Ciudad de Tlaxcala, y sus cuatro cave- 

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Howse. — A Geammae of the Ceee Language. With which is com- 
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Ikhwanu-s Safa. — Ihkwanu-s Safa ; or, Beothees of Pueitt. De- 
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Inman.— Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Times; or, an 
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Inman. — Ancient Pagan and Modeen Cheistian Symbouhm Km 

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Laghu Kaumudi. A Sanskrit Grammar. ByVaradaraja. With an English 
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Lee. — A Translation oe the Balavataro : a Native Grammar of the 
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Legge — The Chinese Classics. "With a Translation, Critical and 
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Legge.— The Life and Teachings of Confucius, with Explanatory 
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Leigh. — The Eeligion of the World. By H. Stone Leigh. 12mo 
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Leitner. — The Eaces and Languages of Dardistan. By G. W. 

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Lesley. — Man's Origin and Destiny, Sketched from the Platform of 
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Manava-Kalpa-Sntra ; being a portion of this ancient Work on Yaidik 

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Manning. — An Inquiry into the Character and Origin of the 
Possessive Augment in English and in Cognate Dialects. By the late 
James Manning, Q.A.S., Recorder of Oxford. Svo.pp. iv. and 90. 2s. 

Markham.— Quichua Grammar and Dictionary. Contributions to- 
wards a Grammar and Dictionary of Quichua, the Language of the Yncas of 
Peru; collected by Clements R. Markham, F.S.A., Corr. Mem. of the Uni- 
versity of Chile. Author of " Cuzco and Lima," and "Travels in Peru and 
India." In one vol. crown 8vo., pp. 223, cloth. £l. Is. 

Markham. — Ollanta: A Drama in the Quichua Language. Text, 
Translation, and Introduction, By Clements R. Markham, F.R.G.S. Crown 
8vo., pp. 128, cloth. 7s. 6d. 

Marsden. — Numismata Orientalia Illustrata. The Plates of the 

Oriental Coins, Ancient and Modern, of the Collection of the late William 
Marsden, F. R.S., etc., etc., engraved from drawings made under his direction. 
4to. pp. iv. (explanatory advertisement), cloth, gilt top. £l lis. 6d. 

Mason. — Burmah : its People and Natural Productions ; or Notes on 
the Nations, Fauna, Flora, and Minerals of Tenasserim, Pegu, and Burmah. 
By Rev. F. Mason, D.D., M.R.A.S., Corresponding Member of the American 
Oriental Society, of the Boston Society of Natural History, and of the Lyceum 
of Natural History, New York. 8vo. pp. xviii. and 914, cloth. Rangoon, 
1860. 305. 

Mason. — The Pali Text of Eachchayano's Grammar, with English 
Annotations. By Francis Mason, D.D. I. The Text Aphorisms, 1 to 673. 
II. The English Annotations, including the various Readings of six independent 
Burmese Manuscripts, the Singalese Text on Verbs, and the Cambodian Text 
on Syntax. To which is added a Concordance of the Aphorisms. In Two 
Parts. 8vo. sewed, pp. 208, 75, and 28. Toongoo, 1871. £l 12s. 



8 and 60, Paternoster Row, London. 23 

Mathuraprasada Misra. — A Trilingual Dictionary, being a compre- 
hensive Lexicon in English, Urdfi, and Hindi, exhibiting the Syllabication, 
Pronunciation, and Etymology of English AVords, with their Explanation in 
English, and in Urdu and Hindi in the Roman Character. By Matimk\- 
prasada Misra, Second Master, Queen's College, Benares. 8vo. pp. xv. and 
1330, cloth. Benares, 1865. £2 2s. 

Mayers. — Illustrations of the Lamaist System in Tibet, drawn from 
Chinese Sources. By William Frederick Mayers, Esq., of Her Britannic 
Majesty's Consular Service, China. 8vo. pp. 21, sewed. 1869. 1*. 6d. 

Medhurst. — Chinese Dialogues, Questions, and Familiar Sentk r 

literally translated into English, with a view to promote commercial intercourse 
and assist beginners in the Language. By the late W. H. Medhurst, D.D. 
A new and enlarged Edition. 8vo. pp. 226. 18s. 

Megha-Duta (The). (Cloud -Messenger.) By Kalidasa. Translated 
from the Sanskrit into English verse, with Notes and Illustrations. By the 
late H. H. Wilson, M. A., F.R.S., Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, etc., etc. The Vocabulary by Francis Johnson, sometime 
Professor of Oriental Languages at the College of the Honourable the East India 
Company, Haileybury. New Edition. 4to. cloth, pp. xi. and 180. 10s. 6d. 

Memoirs read before the Anthropological Society of London, 1863 
1864. 8vo., pp. 542, cloth. 21s. 

Memoirs read before the Anthropological Society of London, 1865-6. 

Vol. II. 8vo., pp. x. 464, cloth. 21s. 
Merx. — Grammatica Syriaca, quam post opus Hoffmanni refecit 
Adalbertus Merx, Phil. Dr. Theol. Lie. in Univ. Litt. Jenensi Priv. Docens. 
Particula I. Royal 8vo. pp. 136, sewed. 7s. 
Particula II. Royal 8vo. pp. 137-388, sewed. 10s. 6d. 

Moffat. — The Standard Alphabet Problem ; or the Preliminary- 
Subject of a General Phonic System, considered on the basis of some important 
facts in the Sechwana Language of South Africa, and in reference to the views 
of Professors Lepsius, Max Miiller, and others. A contribution to Phonetic 
Philology. By Robert Moffat, junr., Surveyor, Fellow of the Royal Geogra- 
phical Society. 8vo. pp. xxviii. and 174, cloth. 7s. 6d. 

Molesworth. — A Dictionary, Marathi and English. Compiled by 
J. T. Molesworth, assisted by George and Thomas Candy. Second Edition, 
revised and enlarged. By J. T. Molesworth. Royal 4to. pp. xxx and 922, 
boards. Bombay, 1857. £3 3s. 

Morfill. — The Slaves : their Ethnology, early History, and popular 
Traditions, with some account of Slavonic Literature. Being the substance of 
a course of Lectures delivered at Oxford. By W. R. Morfill, M.A. 

[/// prejHtration. 

Morley. — A Descriptive Catalogue of the Historical Mam scripts 
in the Arabic and Persian Languages preserved in the Library of the Royal 
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. By William H. Morley, 
M.R.A.S. 8vo. pp. viii. and 160, sewed. London, 1854. 2s. 6d. 

Morrison. — A Dictionary of the Chinese Language. By the Rev. 
R. Morrison, D.D. Two vols. Vol. I. pp. x. and 762; Vol. II. pp.828, 
cloth. Shanghae, 1865. £6 6s. 

Muhammed. — The Life of Muhammed. Based on Mohammed Ibn 

Ishak By Abd El Malik Ibn Hisham. Edited by Dr. Ferdinand Wusten- 
feld. One volume containing the Arabic Text. 8vo. pp. 1026. sewed. 
Price 21s. Another volume, containing Introduction, Notes, and Index in 
German. 8vo. pp. lxxii. and 266, sewed. 7s. 6d. Each part sold separately. 
The test based on the Manuscripts of the Berlin, Leipaio, C.otha ami Lejdeo Libraries, has 
been carefully revised by the learned editor, and printed with the utmost axaotfl 



24 Linguistic Publications of Trubner §• Co. 

Muir. — Original Sanskrit Texts, on the Origin and History of the 
People of India, their Eeligion and Institutions. Collected, Translated, and 
Illustrated by John Mum, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D. 

Vol. I. Mythical and Legendary Accounts of the Origin of Caste, with an Inquiry 
into its existence in the Vedic Age. Second Edition, re-written and greatly enlarged. 
8vo. pp. xx. 532, cloth. 1868. 21s. 

Vol. 11. A New Edition is in preparation. 

Vol. III. The Vedas: Opinions of their Authors, and of later Indian Writers, on 
their Origin, Inspiration, and Authority. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 
8vo. pp. xxxii. 312, cloth. 1868. 16s. 

Vol. IV. Comparison of the Vedic with the later representation of the principal 
Indian Deities. 8vo. pp. xii. 440, cloth. 1863. 15s. 

Vol. V. Contributions to a Knowledge of the Cosmogony, Mythology, Religious 
Ideas, Life and Manners of the Indians in the Vedic Age. 8vo. pp. xvi. 492, cloth, 
1870. 21*. 
M tiller (Max). — The Sacred Hymns oe the Brahmins, as preserved to us 

in the oldest collection of religious poetry, the Rig-Veda-Sanhita, translated and 
explained. By F. Max Muller, M.A., Fellow of All Souls' College ; Professor 
of Comparative Philology at Oxford ; Foreign Member of the Institute of 
France, etc., etc. In 8 vols. Volume I. 8vo. pp. clii. and 264. 12s. 6d. 
Muller (Max). — A New Edition of the Hymns of the Bjg-Yeda or 

the Sanhita Text, without the Commentary of the Sayana. Based upon the 
Editio princeps of Max Miiller. Large 8vo. of about 800 pages. [In preparation. 
" The above New Edition of the Sanhita Text of the Rig-Veda, -without the Commentary of 
Sayana, will contain foot-notes of the names of the Authors, Deities, and Metres. It will be 
comprised in about fifty large 8vo. sheets, and will be carefully corrected and revised by Frof. 
F. Max Muller. The price to subscribers before publication will be 24s. per copy. After" publi- 
cation the price will be 36s. per copy. 

Miiller (Max). — Lecture on Buddhist Nihilism. By P. Max Muller, 
M.A., Professor of Comparative Philology in the University of Oxford ; Mem- 
ber of the French Institute, etc. Delivered before the General Meeting of the 
Association of German Philologists, at Kiel, 28th September, 1869. (Translated 
from the German.) Sewed. 1869. Is. 
Maphegyi. — The Album of Language, illustrated by trie Lord's Prayer 
in one hundred languages, with historical descriptions of the principal languages, 
interlinear translation and pronunciation of each prayer, a dissertation on the 
languages of the world, and tables exhibiting" all known languages, dead and 
living. By G. Naphegyi, M.D., A.M., Member of the " Sociedad Geografica 
y Estadistica" of Mexico, and " Mejoras Materiales" of Texoco, of the Numis- 
matic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, etc. In one splendid folio 
volume of 322 pages, illuminated frontispiece and title-page, elegantly bound 
in cloth, gilt top. £2 10s. 
Contents.— Preface (pp. 2). — Introduction. — Observations on the Origin of Language (pp. 12). 
—Authors of Collections of tbe Lord's Prayer (pp. 8).— Families of Language (pp. 13).— Alpha- 
bets (pp. 25). The Lord's Prayer in the following languages (each accompanied by a trans- 
literation into Roman characters, a translation into English, and a Monograph of the language) , 
printed in the original characters. 

A. Aryan Family. — 1. Sanskrit. 2. Bengalee. 3. Moltanee. 4. Hindoostanee. 5. Gipsy. 
6. Greek. 7. Modern Greek. 8. Latin. 9. Italian. 10. French. 11. Spanish. 12. Portuguese. 
13. Celtic. 14. Welsh. 15. Cornish. 16. Irish. 17. Gothic. 18. Anglo-Saxon. 19. Old 
Saxon and Dano-Saxon. 20. English (4 varieties). 21. German (4 varieties). 22. Dutch. 23. 
Runic. 24. Wallachian. 25. Icelandic. 26. Danish. 27. Norwegian. 28. Swedish. 29 
Lithuanian. 30. Old Prussian. 31. Servian. 32. Sclavonic. 33. Polavian. 34. Bohemian. 
35. Polish. 36. Russian. 37. Bulgaric. 38. Armenian. 39. Armenian-Turkish. 40. Albanian. 
41. Persian. 

B. Semitic Family.— 1. Hebrew. 2. Chaldee. 3. Samaritan. 4. Syriac. 5. Syrc~Chald«ic. 
6. Carshun. 7. Arabic. 8. iEthiopic. 8. Amharic. 

C. Turanian Family. — 1. Turkish. 2. Hungarian. 3. Finnish. 4. Estonian. 5. Lap- 
ponian. 6. Laplandic (Dialect of Uma-Lappmark) . 7. Basque. 8. Javanese. 9. Hawaiian. 
10. Maori (New Zealandic). 11. Malay. 12. Ceylonese. 13. Moorish. 14. Coptic. 15. Berber. 
16. Hottentot. 17. Susuic. 18. Burmese. 19. Siamese. 20. Mongolian. 21. Chinese. 
22. Kalmuk. 23. Cashmere. 

D. American Family.— 1. Cherokee. 2. Delawar. 3. Micmac. 4. Totonac. 5. Othomi. 
6. Cora. 7. Kolusic. 8. Greenland. 9. Mexican. 10. Mistekic. 11. Mayu. 12. Brazilian. 
13. Chiquitic. 14. Amaric. 



8 and 60, Paternoster Row, London. 
Nayler. — Commonsense Observations on the E of Rules (not 

yet reduced to System in any work extant) regarding Tin-: ENGLISH LAMfl 

on the pernicious effects of yielding blind obedience to so-called authorities, 
whether Dictionary -Compilers, Grammar- Makers, or SfELLlNG-BoOK 
ManufaCtuhers, instead of examining and judging for ourselves on all ques- 
tions that are open to investigation ; followed hy a Treatise, entitled I'udmn- 
ciation made Easy ; also an Essay on the Pronunciation of Pbofib 
Names. By B. S. Nayler, accredited Elocutionist to the most celebrated 
Literary Societies in London. 8vo. pp. iv. 148, boards. 1869. 5s. 

Newman. — A Dictionary of Modekn Arabic — 1. Anglo- Arabic 
Dictionary. 2. Anglo-Arabic Vocabulary. 3. Arabo-English Dictionary. By 
F. W. Newman, Emeritus Professor of University College, London. In 2 
vols, crown 8vo., pp. xvi. and 376—464, cloth. £'1 Is. 

Newman. — A Handbook of Modern Arabic, consisting of a Practical 

^Grammar, with numerous Examples, Dialogues, and Newspaper Extracts, in a 

European Type. By F. W. Newman, Emeritus Professor of University 

College, London ; formerly Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Post 8vo. pp. 

xx. and 192, cloth. London, 1866. 6s. 

Newman. — The Text of the Igtjvine Inscriptions, with interlinear 
Latin Translation and Notes. By Francis W. Newman, late Professor of 
Latin at University College, London. 8vo. pp. xvi. and 54, sewed. 2s. 

Newman. — Orthoepy : or, a simple mode of Accenting English, for 
the advantage of Foreigners and of all Learners. By Francis W. Newman, 
Emeritus Professor of University College, London. 8vo. pp. 28, sewed. 1869. Is. 

Notley. — A Comparative Grammar of the French, Italian, Spanish, 
and Portuguese Languages. By Edwin A. Notley. Crown oblong 8vo. 
cloth, pp. xv. and 396. 7s. 6d. 

Oriental Text Society.— {The Publications of the Oriental Text Society.) 

1 . Theophania; or, Divine Manifestations of our Lord and Saviour. By 

Eu sebius, Bishop of Csesarea. Syriac. Edited by Prof. S. Lee. 8vo. 18-12. 15*. 

2. Athanasitjs's Festal Letters, discovered in an ancient Syriac 

Version. Edited by the Rev. W. Cureton. 8vo. 1848. 1.5s. 

3. Shahrastani : Book of Religious and Philosophical Sects, in 

Arabic. Two Parts. 8vo. 1842. 30s. 

4. Umdat Aridat Ahl al Sunnat tva al TAMaaT; Pillar of the Creed 

of the Sunnites. Edited in Arabic by the Rev. W. Cureton. 8vo. 1 843 

5. History of the Almohades. Edited in Arabic by Dr. R. L\ A. 

Dozy. 8vo. 184-7. 10s. 6d. 

6. SamaYeda. Edited in Sanskrit by Rev. G. Stevenson. 8vo. 1843. 1 2*. 

7. Dasa Kumara Charita. Edited in Sanskrit by Professor H. II. 

Wilson. 8vo. 1846. £1 4s. 

8. Maha ViRa Charita, or a History of Rama. A Sanskrit Play. 

Edited by F. H. Trithen. 8vo. 1848. 15s. 

9. Mazhzan tjl Asrar: The Treasury of Secrets. By Nizam i. 

Edited in Persian by N. Bland. 4to. 1844. 'tis. C)d, 

10. Saiaman-u-Ubsal ; A Romance of Jami (Dshami). Edited in 

Persian by F. Falconer. 4to. 1843. 10s. 

11. Mirkhond's History of the Atabeks. Edited in Persian by 

W. H. Morley. 8vo. 1850. 12s. 

12. Tuhfat-ul-Ahrar; the Gift of the Noble. A Poem. By Jami 

(Dshami). Edited in Persian by F. Falconer. 4to. 1813. 10*. 



26 Linguistic Publications of Trubner fy Co. 

Osburn. — The Monumental History of Egypt, as recorded on the 
Ruins of her Temples, Palaces, and Tombs. By Wjlltam Osburn. Illustrated 
with Maps, Plates, etc. 2 vols. 8vo. pp. xii. and 461 ; vii. and 643, cloth. £2 2s. 
Vol. I.— From the Colonization of the Valley to the Visit of the Patriarch Abram. 
Vol. II.— From the Visit of Abram to the Exodus. 

Palmer. — Egyptian Chronicles, with a harmony of Sacred and 
Egyptian Chronology, and an Appendix on Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities. 
By William Palmer, M.A., and late Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. 
2 vols., 8vo. cloth, pp. lxxiv. and 428, and viii. and 636. 1861. 12s. 

Pand-Namah. — The Pand-Namah ; or, Books of Counsels. By 
Adarbad Maraspand. Translated from Pehlevi into Gujerathi, by Harbad 
Sheriarjee Dadabhoy. And from Gujerathi into English by the Rev. Shapurji 
Edalji. Fcap. 8vo. sewed. 1870. 6d. 

Pandit. — A Pandit's Bemabks on Peofessoe Max Mullee's Teansla- 
tion of the " Big- Veda." Sanskrit and English. Fcap. 8vo. sewed. 1870. 6d. 

Paspati. — Etudes sue les Tchinghianes (Gypsies) ou Bohemlens de 
L' Empire Ottoman. Par Alexandre G. Paspati, M.D. Large 8vo. sewed, 
pp. xii. and 652. Constantinople, 1871. 28s. 

Patell. — Cotvasjee Patell' s Cheonology, containing corresponding 
Dates of the different Eras used by Christians, Jews, Greeks, Hindus, 
Mohamedans, Parsees, Chinese, Japanese, etc. By Cowasjee Sorabjee 
Patell. 4to. pp. viii. and 184, cloth. 50s. 

Pauthier. — Le Livee de Maeco Polo, Citoyen de Venise, Conseiller 

Prive et Commissaire Imperial de Khoubilai-Khaan. Redige en fran^ais sous 
sa dictee en 1298 par Rusticien de Pise ; Publie pour la premiere fois d'apres 
trois manuscrits inedits de la Bibliotheque Imperiale de Paris, presentant la 
redaction primitive du Livre, revue par Marco Polo lui-meme et donnee par lui, 
en 1307, a Thiebault de Cepoy, accompagnee des Variantes, de 1' Explication 
des mots hors d'usage, et de commentaires geographiques et historiques, tires 
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par M. G. Pauthier. Two vols. roy. 8vo. pp. clvi. 832. With Map and Yiew 
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Pazand. — The Book op the Mainyo-i-Khaed. The Pazand and 

Sanskrit Texts (in Roman characters) as arranged by Neriosengh Dhaval, in 
the fifteenth century. With an English translation, a Glossary of the Pazand 
texts, containing the Sanskrit, Rosian, and Pahlavi equivalents, a sketch of 
Pazand Grammar, and an Introduction. By E. W. West. 8vo. sewed, pp. 
484. 1871. 16*. 
Percy. — Bishop Peecy's Folio Manuscexpts — Ballads and Bomances. 
Edited by John W. Hales, M.A., Fellow and late Assistant Tutor of Christ's 
College, Cambridge ; and Frederick J. Furnivall, M.A., of Trinity Hall, Cam- 
bridge ; assisted by Professor Child, of Harvard University, Cambridge, U.S.A., 
"W. Chappell, Esq., etc. In 3 volumes. Vol. I., pp. 610; Vol. 2, pp. 681. ; 
Vol. 3, pp. 640. Demy 8vo. half-bound, £4 4s. Extra demy 8vo. half-bound, 
on Whatman's ribbed paper, £6 6s. Extra royal 8vo., paper covers, on What- 
man's best ribbed paper, £10 10s. Large 4to., paper covers, on Whatman's 
best ribbed paper, £12. 

Perny. — Dictionnaiee Feanqais-Latin-Chinois de la Langue Manda- 
rine Parlee. Par Paul Perny. M.A., de la Congregation des Missions 
Etrangeres. 4to. pp. viii. 459, sewed. £2 2s. 

Perny. — Geammaiee Peatique de la Langue Mandaeine Paelee. 

Par Paul Perny, M.A., de la Congregation des Missions Etrangeres. 

[In the Press. 
Perny. — Peoveebes Chinois, Eecueillis et mis en oedee. Par Paul 

Perny, M.A., de la Congregation des Missions Etrangeres. 12mo. pp. iv. 135. 

3s. 



8 and 60, Paternoster Roiu, London. 27 

Perrin. — English-Zulu Dictionary. New Edition, revised by J. A. 
Brickhill, Interpreter to the Supreme Court of Natal. 12mo. pp. 226', cloth, 
Pietermaritzburg, 1865. 5*. 

Philological Society. — Proposals for the Publication of a New Engi.imi 
Dictionary. 8vo. pp. 32, sewed. 6d. 

Pierce the Ploughman's Crede (about 1394 Anno Domini). Transcribed 

and Edited from the MS. of Trinity College, Cambridge, R. 3, 15. Col- 
lated with the MS. Bibl. Reg. 18. B. xvii. in the British Museum, and with 
the old Printed Text of 1553, to which is appended " God spede the Plough" 
(about 1500 Anno Domini), from the Lansdowne MS. 7>>'~. By the 
Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M. A., late Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, 
pp. xx. and 75, cloth. 1867. 2s. 6d. 

Prakrita-Prakasa ; or, The Prakrit Grammar of Vararuchi, with the 

Commentary (Manorama) of Bhamaha. The first complete edition of the 
■° Original Text with Various Readings from a Collation of Six Manuscripts in 
the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and the Libraries of the Royal Asiatic Society 
and the East India House; with copious Notes, an English Translation, and 
Index of Prakrit words, to which is prefixed an easy Introduction to Prakrit 
Grammar. By Edward Byles Cowell, of Magdalen Hall, Oxford, Pro- 
fessor of Sanskrit at Cambridge. Second issue, with new Preface, and corrections. 
8vo. pp. xxxii. and 204. 14*. 

Priaulx. — Qu2estiones Mosaics; or, the first part of the Book of 
Genesis compared with the remains of ancient religions. By Osmond de 
Beauvoir Priaulx. 8vo. pp. viii. and 548, cloth. 12s. 

Raja-Niti. — A Collection of Hindu Apologues, in the Braj Bhasha 
Language. Revised edition. With a Preface, Notes, and Supplementary 
Glossary. By Fitzedward Hall, Esq. 8vo. cloth, pp. 204. 21s. 

Ram Raz. — Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus. By Ram Raz, 
Native Judge and Magistrate of Bangalore, Corresponding Member of the R.A.S. 
of Great Britain and Ireland. With 48 plates. 4to. pp. xiv. and 64, sewed. 
London, 1834. Original selling price, £l 11*. 6d., reduced (for a short time) tc 12*. 

Rask.— A Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue. Prom the Danish 
of Erasmus Ra6k, Professor of Literary History in, and Librarian to, the 
University of Copenhagen, etc. By Benjamin Thorpe, Member of the Munich 
Royal Academy of Sciences, and of the Society of Netherlandish Literature, 
Ley den. Second edition, corrected and improved. l8mo. pp. 200, cloth, 5s. 6d. 

Rawlinson. — A Commentary on the Cuneiform Inscriptions of 
Babylonia and Assyria, including Readings of the Inscription on the Nimrud 
Obelisk, and Brief Notice of the Ancient Kings of Nineveh and Babylon, 
Read before the Royal Asiatic Society, by Major H. C. Rawlinson. 8vo., 
pp. 84, sewed. London, 1850. 2s. 6d. 

Rawlinson. — Outlines of Assyrian History, from the Inscriptions of 
Nineveh. By Lieut. Col. Rawlinson, C.B., followed by some Remarks by 
A. H. Layakd, Esq., D.C.L. 8vo., pp. xliv., sewed. London, 1852. 1*. 

Renan. — An Essay on the Age and Antiquity of the Book of 

Nabathjean Agriculture. To which is added an Inaugural Lecture on the 
Position of the Shemitic Nations in the History of Civilization. By M. BftMMT 
Renan, Membre de l'Institut. Crown 8vo., pp. xvi. and 148, cloth. St. M. 

Revue Celtique. — The Revue Celtique, a Quarterly Magazine for 

Celtic Philology, Literature, and History. Edited with the assistance of the 
Chief Celtic Scholars of the British Islands and of the Continent, and Con- 
ducted by H. Gaidoz. 8vo. Subscription, £l per annum. 

Ridley — Kamilaroi, Dippil, and Turrubul. Languages Spoken by 
Australian Aborigines. By Rev. Wm. Ridley, M.A., of the University of 
Sydney ; Minister of the Presbyterian Church of New South Wake, Printed 
by authority. Small 4to. cloth, pp. vi. and 90. 30s. 



28 Linguistic Publications of Trubner §• Co. 

Rig- Veda. — A New Edition of the Hymns of the Rig-Yeda in the 
Sanhita Text, without the Commentary of the Sayana. Based upon the 
Editio princeps of Max Muller. Large 8vo. of about 800 pages. See also 
under Max Muller. [In preparation. 

Rig-Veda-Sanhita (The). The Sacred Hymns of the Brahmins, as 
preserved to us in the oldest collection of Religious Poetry, the Rig-Yeda- 
Sanhita, translated and explained. By F. Max Mulleu, M.A., Fellow of 
All Soul's College ; Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford ; Foreign 
Member of the Institute of France, etc. . In 8 vols. Yol. I. 8vo. pp. clii. and 
264-. 12«. 6d. 

Rig-Veda-Sanhita (The) : The Sacked Hymn's of the Beahm ans. 

Translated and explained by F. Max Muller, M.A., LL.D., Fellow of All 
Soul's College, Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford, Foreign Member 
of the Institute of France, etc., etc. Vol. I. Hymns to the Maruts, or the 
Storm-Gods. 8vo. pp. clii. and 264. cloth. 1869. 12s. 6d. 

Rig- Veda Sanhita. — A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns. Con- 
stituting the First Ashtaka, or Book of the Rig-veda ; the oldest authority for 
the religious and social institutions of the Hindus. Translated from the Original 
Sanskrit. By the late H. H. Wilson, M.A., F.R.S., etc. etc. etc. Second 
Edition, with a Postscript by Dr. Fitzedward Hall. Yol. I. 8vo. cloth, 
pp. lii. and 348, price 21s. 

Rig-veda Sanhita.— A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns, constitut- 
ing the Fifth to Eighth Ashtakas, or books of the Big- Veda, the oldest 
Authority for the Beligious and Social Institutions of the Hindus. Translated 
from the Original Sanskrit by the late Horace Hatman Wilson, M.A., 
F.R.S., etc. Edited by E. B. Cowell, M.A., Principal of the Calcutta 
Sanskrit College. Vol. IV., 8vo„ pp. 214, cloth. 14s. 
A few copies of Vols. II. and III. still left. [ Vols. V. and VI. in the Press. 

Sama-Vidhana-Brahmana (The). With the Commentary of Sayana. 
Edited, with Notes, Translation, and Index, by A. C Burxell, M.R.A.S., 
Madras Civil Service. In 1 vol. 8vo. [In preparation. 

Scheie de Vere. — Studies in English ; or, Glimpses of the Inner 
Life of our Language. By M. Schele de Vere, LL.D., Professor of Modern 
Languages in the University of Virginia. 8vo. cloth, pp. vi. and 365. 10s. 6d. 

Schemeil. — El Mtjbtaeie; or, First Born. (In Arabic, printed at 
Beyrout). Containing Five Comedies, called Comedies of Fiction, on Hopes 
and Judgments, in Twenty-six Poems of 1092 Verses, showing the Seven Stages 
of Life, from man's conception unto his death and burial. By Emix Ibrahim 
Schemeil. In one volume, 4to. pp. 166, sewed. 1870. os. 

Schlagintweit. — Buddhism in Tibet. Illustrated by Literary Docu- 
ments and Objects of Religious Worship. "With an Account of the Buddhist 
Systems preceding it in India. By Emil Schlagixtweit, LL.D. With a 
Folio Atlas of 20 Plates, and 20 Tables of Native Prints in the Text. Royal 
8vo., pp. xxiv. and 404. £2 2s. 

Schlagintweit. — Glossary of Geographical Teems feom India and 
Tibet, with Native Transcription and Transliteration. By Hermann de 
Schlagixtweit. Forming, with a " Route Book of the Western Himalaya, 
Tibet, and Turkistan," the Third Volume of H., A., andR. de Schlagintweit's 
"Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia." With an Atlas in 
imperial folio, of Maps, Panoramas, and Views. Royal 4to., pp. xxiv. and 
293. £4. 

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Wilson. — Select Specimens of the Theatre oe the Hindus. Trans- 
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CONTEXTS. 

Vol. I.— Preface — Treatise on the Dramatic System of the Hindus— Dramas translated from the 
Original Sanskrit— The Mrichchakati, or the Toy Cart— Yikrama and Urvasi, or the 
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Rama. 

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Necklace— Appendix, containing short accounts of different Dramas. 

Wilson. — The Present State of the Cultivation of Oriental 
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"Wise. — Commentary on the Hindu System of Medicine. By T. A. 
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"Wylie. — ]S"otes on Chinese Literature ; with introductory Remarks 
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Chinese, into various European Languages. By A. Wylie, Agent of the 
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Yates. — A Bengali Grammar. By the late Rev. W. Yates, D.D. 
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